Peltandra Virginica
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''Peltandra virginica'' is a plant of the arum family known as green arrow arum and tuckahoe. It is widely distributed in
wetlands A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor ( anoxic) processes taking place, especially ...
in the eastern
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, as well as in
Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
,
Ontario Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
, and
Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
/ref>Whigham, Dennis F., Robert L. Simpson and Mary A. Leck. 1979. The Distribution of Seeds, Seedlings, and Established Plants of Arrow Arum (Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth) in a Freshwater Tidal Wetland Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 106: 193-199 It is common in central Florida including the
Everglades The Everglades is a natural region of flooded grasslands in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida, comprising the southern half of a large drainage basin within the Neotropical realm. The system begins near Orlando with the K ...
and along the Gulf Coast. Its rhizomes are tolerant to low oxygen levels found in wetland soils. It can be found elsewhere in North America as an
introduced species An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived ther ...
and often an
invasive plant An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native speci ...
. ''P. virginica'' is a hydrophytic marshland aquatic plant pollinated by a chloropid fly through providing a brood site and releasing the pollen onto them. The primary dispersal mechanisms are via water and animals.


Description

This is an emergent perennial herb growing from a large
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome ( ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and Shoot (botany), shoots from its Node (botany), nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from ...
and producing many large leaves. An individual leaf may have a petiole nearly a meter long and a blade half a meter in length. The leaves are quite variable in shape and size, but they are often generally arrowhead-shaped. The
inflorescence In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...
bears male and female flowers, as well as sterile flowers. The flower varies from whitish to greenish to yellow. The fruit is a brown
berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the cul ...
containing a few seeds within a clear gelatinous pulp. Large number of seeds can accumulate in the soil of wetlands. ''Peltandra virginica'' is a marshland aquatic plant, growing in North America bogs, ponds, and marshes. The roots and base grow into the submerged substrate, and the leaves and inflorescences project up and out of the water. The roots form a perennial
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome ( ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and Shoot (botany), shoots from its Node (botany), nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from ...
. Various forms of leaf blades have been observed, both in larger ranges and smaller individual populations. Petioles range from green to green-purple to purple with a medium green blade petiole lengths between 38 and 98 centimeters and blade length being between 9 and 57 centimeters. Lateral veins also have variable thicknesses. Inflorescences are generally pale green to white, being lighter within the spathe. Lengths for the inflorescence range between 7 and 25 centimeters with the spadix being about half the size to the full length of the spathe with greenish to white flowers, producing fruits that rot within the closed spathe. Fruits are pea green to mottled green and purple and range from 6 to 16 millimeters. In most of its range, it blooms from spring to late summer and fall and in warmer regions, it will bloom into the winter. It generally thrives in low salinity environments.


Taxonomy

Arrow arum, ''Peltandra virginica'', is a member of the arum family,
Araceae The Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe (or leaf-like bract). Also ...
, and is known by the names tuckahoe, green arrow arum, and peltandre. It was first identified as "tockowhough" by
William Strachey William Strachey (4 April 1572 – buried 16 August 1621) was an English writer whose works are among the primary sources for the early history of the English colonisation of North America. He is best remembered today as the eye-witness reporter ...
, Secretary of the
Colony of Virginia The Colony of Virginia was a British Empire, British colonial settlement in North America from 1606 to 1776. The first effort to create an English settlement in the area was chartered in 1584 and established in 1585; the resulting Roanoke Colo ...
in 1611, in his book ''
The Historie of Travaile Into Virginia Britannia ''The Historie of Travaile Into Virginia Britannia'' is a 1619 historical book by William Strachey, one of the most prominent primary sources on the earliest English colonization efforts in North America. He was a settler at Jamestown, and wrot ...
''. He describes its starchy root as a primary food source of the
Powhatan Powhatan people () are Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands who belong to member tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, or Tsenacommacah. They are Algonquian peoples whose historic territories were in eastern Virginia. Their Powh ...
Indians which they gathered from the marshes of
Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
. It was originally described as ''Arum virginicum'' by
Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
in 1753 and has also been placed in the genera '' Alocasia'', '' Caladium'', '' Calla'', '' Lecontia'', and '' Rensselaeria''. Other synonyms include ''Peltandra luteospadix'' and ''P. tharpii''. In the eastern United States and Canada where ''Peltandra virginica'' resides, one other ''Peltandra'' species exists, '' P. sagittifolia''. ''P. virginica'' can be distinguished from the other extant taxon of ''Peltandra'' by the variation in leaf form, average greater size in non-reproductive structures, and the difference in color of the fruit. The fruit of ''P. sagittifolia'' is red with a white spathe, and the fruit of ''P. virginica'' are green to purple with a green to yellow green spathe.


Distribution and habitat

''Peltandra virginica'' is a native to North America; its range spans the entire eastern coast of the United States and goes as far west as
Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...
. It is also naturalized in areas of
California California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...
up to
Oregon Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...
and is present in eastern regions of Canada. It mostly inhabits the wetlands and swamps, including marshes and bogs.


Conservation

Based on the Red List of Threatened Species 2016, ''P. virginica'' is a taxon of Least Concern, this is because of its broad range in eastern and central North America. In some areas within the range of ''P. virginica'' the populations are diminishing. It has also been found in California. While common in most of its range, ''P. virginica'' is listed as Endangered in Iowa.


Pollination biology

In the pistillate stage the spadix of ''P. virginica'' is entirely covered by the spathe, not allowing insects to pollinate female flowers. Pollination is achieved by the plant's utilizing brood-site-based pollination. The chloropid fly '' Elachiptera formosa'' forms a symbiotic relationship with the inflorescence. The flies are attracted to the odor of the male flowers in an inflorescence's staminate stage where they feed on pollen and mate then find oviposition sites, followed by the development of the larvae and maturity of the flies.


Ethnobotany

The plant contains
calcium oxalate Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalic acid with the chemical formula or . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' varies from 1 to 3. Anhydrous and all hydrated forms are colorless or white. The monohydr ...
crystals, making it unpalatable.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas In the Americas, Indigenous peoples comprise the two continents' pre-Columbian inhabitants, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with them in the 15th century, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with the pre-Columbian population of ...
used most parts of the plant for food, however, cooking it for hours first to make it safe to eat. Historical accounts suggest that Native Americans may have used ''Peltandra virginica'' as a food source. They may have eaten the seeds and fruits as well as the leaves and roots. The section of ''P. virginica''s range where its populations are highest, from Pennsylvania to coastal Virginia, are where it was most likely used for food. In other times and places, it has been used as an ornamental plant and to stabilize sediments in small bodies of water.


Wildlife

''Peltandra virginica'' is considered a low percentage of various animals' food sources. ''Peltandra virginica'' makes up 5–10% of the diet of small mammals that reside within its range and 10–25% of the diet of water birds that share its range.


Toxicity

The non-reproductive structures of ''Peltandra virginica'' are known to contain
calcium oxalate Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalic acid with the chemical formula or . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' varies from 1 to 3. Anhydrous and all hydrated forms are colorless or white. The monohydr ...
crystals, that can irritate the
gastrointestinal system The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The tract is the largest of the body's systems, after the cardiovascular system. T ...
of animals and people and has been linked to the development of
kidney stones Kidney stone disease (known as nephrolithiasis, renal calculus disease, or urolithiasis) is a crystallopathy and occurs when there are too many minerals in the urine and not enough liquid or hydration. This imbalance causes tiny pieces of cr ...
.


References


External links


Jepson Manual TreatmentInformation
from the Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants of the University of Florida. {{Authority control Aroideae Freshwater plants Flora of Cuba Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Flora of Northern America