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Paramardi (reigned 1165–1203 CE) was a king of the
Chandela The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs. T ...
dynasty of central India. He was the last powerful Chandela king, and ruled the Jejakabhukti region (
Bundelkhand Bundelkhand (, ) is a geographical and cultural region and a proposed state and also a mountain range in central and North India. It corresponds to the Post-Vedic Chedi kingdom. The hilly region is now divided between the states of Uttar Prad ...
in present-day
Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (; ; ) is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and the largest city is Indore, Indore. Other major cities includes Gwalior, Jabalpur, and Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, Sagar. Madhya Pradesh is the List of states and union te ...
and
Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh ( ; UP) is a States and union territories of India, state in North India, northern India. With over 241 million inhabitants, it is the List of states and union territories of India by population, most populated state in In ...
). Around 1182–83 CE, he was defeated by
Prithviraj Chauhan Prithviraja III (IAST: Pṛthvī-rāja; 22 May 1166 – February 1192), popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora, was a king from the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory of Sapadalaksha, w ...
, who raided the Chandela capital
Mahoba Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara imag ...
. Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power over the next few years, but was defeated by the
Ghurid The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; ; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian peoples, Iranian Tajik people, Tajik origin, which ruled from the 8th-century in the region of Ghor, and became an Emp ...
general Qutb ud-Din Aibak around 1202–03 CE.


Early life

Paramardi's Bateshvar inscription suggests that he succeeded his father
Yashovarman Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was the ruler of the Kingdom of Kannauj and first king of the Varman dynasty. Life Yashovarman was the king of Kannauj in the early part of the eighth century. The city (then known as Kanyakubja) had previously ...
. However, other Chandela inscriptions (including those of his own) suggest that he succeeded his grandfather Madanavarman. It is possible that Yashovarman ruled for a very short period, or did not rule at all, having died while Madanavarman was still alive. According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Paramardi ascended the throne at the age of 5 years. An Ajaygarh inscription appears to corroborate this claim: it states that Paramardi was a leader even as a child (''bāl-opi netā''). He is mentioned as Paramardi-
deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...
in inscriptions. The medieval bardic legends such as Alha-Khand call him Paramala or Parimala. In modern
vernacular Vernacular is the ordinary, informal, spoken language, spoken form of language, particularly when perceptual dialectology, perceived as having lower social status or less Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige than standard language, which is mor ...
s, he is also known as Paramardidev, Parmar, Paramal Deo or Parimal Chandel (because of schwa deletion). A gold coin issued by him, featuring a seated goddess, gives his name as ''Srimat Paramardi''.


Reign

Find spot Provenance () is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including archaeology, p ...
s of the inscriptions from Paramardi's reign" width="400" height="400" zoom="5" longitude="79.63" latitude="25.47"> Paramardi was the last of the powerful Chandela rulers, and has been mentioned in several legendary texts such as ''Paramala Raso'' (''Parmal Raso'' or ''Mahoba Khand''), ''
Prithviraj Raso The ''Prithviraj Raso'' (IAST: Pṛthvīrāja Rāso) is a Braj language epic poem about the life of Prithviraj Chauhan (reign. c. 1177–1192 CE). It is attributed to Chand Bardai, who according to the text, was a court poet of the king. ...
'' and ''Alha-Khand'' (''Alha Raso'' or Ballad of Alha). While these texts are based on historical events, much of their content has been fabricated to glorify either
Prithviraj Chauhan Prithviraja III (IAST: Pṛthvī-rāja; 22 May 1166 – February 1192), popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora, was a king from the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory of Sapadalaksha, w ...
or Paramardi. Thus, these texts are of doubtful historicity, and therefore, much of Paramardi's reign is shrouded in obscurity. Several Chandela inscriptions also mention Paramardi, but these contain little historical information. For example, the Semra copper-plate inscription vaguely eulogizes him as someonoe who surpassed Makaradhvaja (the god of love) in handsomeness, the ocean in depth, the lord of heaven in majesty,
Brihaspati Brihaspati (, ), is a Hindu god. In the ancient Vedic scriptures, Brihaspati is associated with fire, and the word also refers to a god who counsels the devas and devis (gods and goddesses). In some later texts, the word refers to the large ...
in wisdom, and
Yudhishthira Yudhishthira (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, ud̪ʱiʂʈʰiɾᵊ IAST: ''Yudhiṣṭhira''), also known as Dharmaputra, is the eldest among the five Pandavas, and is also one of the central characters of the ancient Indian epic ''Ma ...
in truthfulness. The Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription credits him with military victories and states that other kings bowed to him, but does not name any of these kings. The Ajaygarh inscription of his grandson's wife Kalyanadevi similarly describes him as a universal sovereign, whose enemies were left in a pitiful condition. Such claims of extensive conquests are not corroborated by historical evidence.


Early career

The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE),
Mahoba Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara imag ...
(1166-1167 CE), Ichhawar (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and Charkhari (1178 CE). All of these inscriptions use the imperial titles for him: ''Paramabhattaraka-
Maharajadhiraja Maharaja (also spelled Maharajah or Maharaj; ; feminine: Maharani) is a royal title in Indian subcontinent of Sanskrit origin. In modern India and medieval northern India, the title was equivalent to a prince. However, in late ancient India ...
-Parameshvara Parama-Maheshvara Shri-Kalanjaradhipati Shrimanmat Paramardideva''. This indicates that in the early part of his reign, Paramardi retained the territories that he had inherited from his grandfather Madanavarman. An 1183 CE
Mahoba Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara imag ...
inscription states that the lord of Tripuri fainted whenever he heard the songs about Paramardi's bravery. This suggests that Paramardi defeated a Kalachuri king of Tripuri, possibly Jayasimha.


Chahamana invasion

During 1182-1183 CE, the Chahamana ruler
Prithviraj Chauhan Prithviraja III (IAST: Pṛthvī-rāja; 22 May 1166 – February 1192), popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora, was a king from the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory of Sapadalaksha, w ...
invaded the Chandela kingdom of Jejakabhukti. The Chandela records do not mention this invasion, presumably to avoid describing the humiliating defeat of their king. According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to
Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, but spread chiefly to the west, or beyond its Bank (geography ...
after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces (
Ghurids The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; ; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian Tajik origin, which ruled from the 8th-century in the region of Ghor, and became an Empire from 1175 to 1215. The G ...
). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital
Mahoba Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara imag ...
. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general Udal against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi. Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother Alha left the Chandela court. They took shelter with Jaichand, the Gahadavala ruler of
Kannauj Kannauj (Hindustani language, Hindustani pronunciation: ) is an ancient city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar palika, Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian States and territories of India, state of Ut ...
. Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela territory via
Gwalior Gwalior (Hindi: , ) is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; It is known as the Music City of India having oldest Gwalior gharana, musical gharana in existence. It is a major sports, cultural, industrial, and political c ...
and Bateshwar. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed. Prithviraj then started a march towards Mahoba. Facing an imminent defeat, Paramardi and his nobles sought a truce on the advice of his chief queen Malhan Devi. Prithviraj agreed to the truce, but remained encamped on the banks of the
Betwa River , discharge1_min = , discharge1_avg = , date=November 2019 , discharge1_max = , source1 = Vindhya Range , source1_location = Near Obedullaganj, Vindhya Range north of Hoshangabad , source1_coordinates = , source1_elevation = , mouth ...
in the Chandela territory. The Chandelas, meanwhile, requested Alha and Udal to come back from Kannauj. The two brothers were initially hesitant, but agreed to return after their mother appealed them to honour their allegiance to the Chandelas. Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons, to support the Chandelas. Paramardi himself became nervous, and retreated to the Kalanjara fort with some of his soldiers. His son Brahmajit, along with Alha and Udal, led the Chandela army against Prithviraj Chauhan. In the ensuing battle, the Chandelas were defeated. Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of Jaichand were killed in the conflict. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked the Chandela capital of Mahoba. Next, Prithviraj dispatched his general Chavand Rai to Kalanjara. The Chauhan army captured the fort, took Paramardi as prisoner, and marched back towards Delhi. According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Alha's son Indal Kumar launched a surprise attack on the returning Chauhan army, and freed Paramardi. Out of shame, Paramardi later committed suicide at the Gajraj temple. ''Parmal Raso'' states that his 50 wives committed sati (self-immolation) after his death. According to
Chand Bardai Chand Bardai (died c. 1200) was an Indian poet who composed '' Prithviraj Raso'', an epic poem in Brajbhasa about the life of the Chahamana king Prithviraj Chauhan. The poem presents him as a court poet of Prithviraj. According to it, after P ...
, he retired to Gaya and died there. The ''
Prithviraj Raso The ''Prithviraj Raso'' (IAST: Pṛthvīrāja Rāso) is a Braj language epic poem about the life of Prithviraj Chauhan (reign. c. 1177–1192 CE). It is attributed to Chand Bardai, who according to the text, was a court poet of the king. ...
'' states that Prithviraj appointed Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son Samarjit recaptured Mahoba with help of Narasimha, an officer of Jaichand. Samarjit then ruled the territory between Kalanjara and Gaya. However, no such prince is mentioned in the Chandela records. The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable, but it is known that Prithviraj Chauhan indeed sacked Mahoba. This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at Madanpur. However, the prolonged occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence. Moreover, it is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the Chauhan victory. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE Ajaygarh stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription. These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler. The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom. The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of Dasharna country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.


Ghurid invasion and death

According to a Kalanjara inscription, while one of Paramardi's predecessors had imprisoned the wives of the earthly rulers, Paramardi's heroics made even the divine rulers anxious about the safety of their wives. As a result, the gods let loose an army of mlechchhas (foreigners) against him, and made him face a defeat. Prithviraj Chauhan was killed after
Second Battle of Tarain The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad Ghuri and the Rajput Confederacy of Prithviraj Chauhan. It took place near Tarain (modern Taraori), which is , north of Delhi. The battle ended in a deci ...
against the
Ghurids The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; ; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian Tajik origin, which ruled from the 8th-century in the region of Ghor, and became an Empire from 1175 to 1215. The G ...
in 1192 CE. After defeating the Chahamanas (Chauhans) and the Gahadavalas, the Ghurid governor of Delhi planned an invasion of Chandela kingdom. A force led by
Qutb al-Din Aibak Qutb ud-Din Aibak (; 1150 – 4 November 1210) was a Turkic general of the Ghurid emperor Muhammad Ghori. He was in charge of the Ghurid territories in northern India, and after Muhammad Ghori's assassination in 1206, he established his ow ...
, and accompanied by strong generals such as
Iltutmish Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (1192 – 30 April 1236) was the third of the Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi, and is thus considered the effective founder of ...
, besieged the Chandela fort of Kalanjara in 1202 CE. ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', written by the Delhi chronicler Hasan Nizami, states that Parmar (Paramardi) initially offered some resistance, but then fled to the safety of the fort. Subsequently, he surrendered before ruler of Delhi, and agreed to be his vassal. He promised to pay a tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could execute this agreement. His
dewan ''Dewan'' (also known as ''diwan'', sometimes spelled ''devan'' or ''divan'') designated a powerful government official, minister, or ruler. A ''dewan'' was the head of a state institution of the same name (see Divan). Diwans belonged to the el ...
Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) continued to resist the ruler of Delhi after his death. The dewan was finally forced to surrender as the water reservoirs within the fort dried up during a drought. ''Taj-ul-Masir'' further states that after the Sultanate's victory, temples were converted into mosques and 50,000 men were taken as slaves. Qutb al-Din Aibak appointed Hazabbar-ud-Din Hasan Arnal as the governor of Kalanjara, and also captured
Mahoba Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara imag ...
. The 16th century Muslim historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces. Firishta as well as Fakhruddin Mubarakshah state that the fall of Kalanjara happened in the
Hijri year The Hijri year () or era () is the era used in the Islamic lunar calendar. It begins its count from the Islamic New Year in which Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (now Medina) in 622 CE. This event, known as the Hij ...
599 (1202-1203 CE). According to ''Taj-ul-Masir'', Kalanjara fell on 20th of
Rajab Rajab () is the seventh month of the Islamic calendar. The lexical definition of the classical Arabic verb ''rajaba'' is "to respect", which could also mean "be awe or be in fear", of which Rajab is a derivative. This month is regarded as one ...
, in the Hijri year 599, on Monday. However, this date corresponds to 12 April 1203 CE, which was a Friday. Based on different interpretations of the historical sources, different scholars date the fall of Kalanjara to either 1202 CE or 1203 CE. According to the Chandela inscriptions, Paramardi was succeeded by Trailokyavarman.


Administration

According to the Baghari inscription, Paramardi placed the burden of government on his prime minister Sallakshana, who was a
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
of
Vashistha Vasishtha (, ) is one of the oldest and revered Vedic rishis or sages, and one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis). Vasishtha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of the ''Rigveda''. Vasishtha and his family are mentioned in Rigv ...
gotra In Hindu culture, the term gotra (Sanskrit: गोत्र) is considered to be equivalent to lineage. It broadly refers to people who are descendants in an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor or patriline. Generally, the gotr ...
. Sallakshana commissioned temples dedicated to
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
and
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
. After his death, his son Purushottama inherited his post. The Baghari inscription also mentions one Gadadhara as Paramardi's minister of war and peace (''sandhna-vigraha-sachiva''). According to the Ajaygarh inscription of
Bhojavarman Bhojavarman (reigned c. 1285-1288 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh). Bhojavarman succeeded Viravarman, whose last inscription is dated 1342 ...
, a
Kayastha Kayastha (or Kayasth) denotes a cluster of disparate Indian communities broadly categorised by the regions of the Indian subcontinent in which they were traditionally locatedthe Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas of North India, the Chandraseniya Ka ...
named Gangadhara was the Kancukin ( chamberlain) of Paramardi. Gangadhara and his brother Jaunadhara are said to have fought at Kalanjara, possibly in the battle against the Delhi forces. Ajayapala and Madanapala, the sons of a former
senapati Senapati ( , ''sena'' meaning "army", ''Pati (title), pati'' meaning "lord") is a title in ancient India denoting the rank of general (military), General. It was a hereditary title of nobility used in the Maratha Empire. During wartime, a ''Sar ...
(general) Kilhana, were two Brahmin senapatis of Paramardi. Ajayapala is also known to have been a senapati of Paramardi's grandfather Madanavarman. Muslim chronicles mention Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) as a
dewan ''Dewan'' (also known as ''diwan'', sometimes spelled ''devan'' or ''divan'') designated a powerful government official, minister, or ruler. A ''dewan'' was the head of a state institution of the same name (see Divan). Diwans belonged to the el ...
who continued to resist the Delhi forces after Paramardi's death. The medieval bardic tradition also mentions Alha and Udala (or Udal) as his generals. Other officers mentioned in the historical records include Mahipala and an ''amatya'' named Vatsaraja. Paramardi was a learned man, and is attributed as the author of a eulogy to
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
, inscribed on a stone at Kalanjara. He patronized a number of scholars, including: * Vatsaraja, the author of ''Rupa-Kashatakam'' (a collection of six plays) * Gadadhara, a poet styled as ''Kavi-Chakravarti'' * Jaganika, the author of ''Alha-Khanda'' * Gunabhadra Munipa Saiddhanti, the Jain author of ''Dhanya-Kumara-Charita'' Although himself a
Shaivite Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the supreme being. It is the second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million Hindus, found widely across South Asia (predominantly in ...
, Paramardi was tolerant towards Buddhists, Jains and Vaishnavites. A copper-plate inscription shows that when he granted a village to a
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
, he respected the rights of a Buddhist shrine located in that village. Several images of the Jain
tirthankara In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (; ) is a saviour and supreme preacher of the ''Dharma (Jainism), dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a ''Tirtha (Jainism), tirtha'', a fordable passage across ''Saṃsā ...
s were set up at various places during his reign. The best known of these are at the Aharji Jain Tirth Near
Tikamgarh Tikamgarh (also spelled as Tikamgadh)is a town and a tehsil in Tikamgarh district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The city serves as a district headquarters. The earlier name of Tikamgarh was Tehri (i.e., a triangle) consisting of thr ...
. His minister Sallakshana commissioned a
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
temple.


References


Bibliography

* * * {{Chandelas of Jejakabhukti Chandelas of Jejakabhukti 12th-century Indian monarchs 13th-century Indian monarchs