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The Pakistan Army (, ), commonly known as the Pak Army (), is the land service branch and the largest component of the
Pakistan Armed Forces The Pakistan Armed Forces (; ) are the military forces of Pakistan. It is the world's sixth-largest military measured by active military personnel and consists of three uniformed services—the Army, Navy, and the Air Force, which are backe ...
. The
president of Pakistan The president of Pakistan () is the head of state of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The president is the nominal head of the executive and the supreme commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces.
is the supreme commander of the army. The Chief of Army Staff (COAS), typically a four-star general, commands the army. The Army was established in August 1947 after the
Partition of India The partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent dominion states, the Dominion of India, Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The Union of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Paki ...
. According to statistics provided by the
International Institute for Strategic Studies The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) is an international research institute or think tank focusing on defence and security issues. Since 1997, its headquarters have been at Arundel House in London. It has offices on four co ...
(IISS) in 2024, the Pakistan Army has approximately 560,000
active duty Active duty, in contrast to reserve duty, is a full-time occupation as part of a military force. Indian The Indian Armed Forces are considered to be one of the largest active service forces in the world, with almost 1.42 million Active Standin ...
personnel, supported by the Pakistan Army Reserve, the
National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...
and the
Civil Armed Forces The Civil Armed Forces (CAF) are a group of nine paramilitary and gendarmerie organisations, separate and distinct from the regular Pakistan Armed Forces. They are responsible for maintaining internal security, helping law enforcement agencie ...
. In accordance with the Pakistan Constitution, Pakistani citizens can voluntarily enlist in military service as early as age 16, but cannot be deployed for combat until age 18. The primary objective and constitutional mission of the Pakistan Army is to ensure the national security and national unity of
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
by defending it against external aggression or the threat of war. It can also be requisitioned by the Pakistani federal government to respond to internal threats within its borders. During national or international calamities or emergencies, it conducts humanitarian rescue operations at home and is an active participant in peacekeeping missions mandated by the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
(UN). Notably, it played a major role in rescuing trapped American soldiers who had requested the assistance of a
quick reaction force A rapid reaction force / rapid response force (RRF), quick reaction force / quick response force (QRF), immediate reaction force (IRF), rapid deployment force (RDF), or quick maneuver force (QMF) is a military or Law enforcement agency, law enf ...
during
Operation Gothic Serpent Operation Gothic Serpent was a military operation conducted in Mogadishu, Somalia, by an American force code-named ''Task Force Ranger'' during the Somali Civil War in 1993. The primary objective of the operation was to capture Mohamed Farra ...
in
Somalia Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is the easternmost country in continental Africa. The country is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, th ...
. Pakistan Army troops also had a relatively strong presence as part of a UN and
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...
coalition during the
Bosnian War The Bosnian War ( / Рат у Босни и Херцеговини) was an international armed conflict that took place in Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following several earlier violent incid ...
and the larger
Yugoslav Wars The Yugoslav Wars were a series of separate but related#Naimark, Naimark (2003), p. xvii. ethnic conflicts, wars of independence, and Insurgency, insurgencies that took place from 1991 to 2001 in what had been the Socialist Federal Republic of ...
. The Pakistan Army, a major component of the Pakistani military alongside the
Pakistan Navy The Pakistan Navy (PN) (; ''romanized'': Pākistān Bahrí'a; ) is the naval warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The Chief of the Naval Staff, a four-star admiral, commands the navy and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Com ...
and
Pakistan Air Force The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) (; ) is the aerial warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces, tasked primarily with the aerial defence of Pakistan, with a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy when re ...
, is a
volunteer force The Volunteer Force was a citizen army of part-time rifle, artillery and engineer corps, created as a Social movement, popular movement throughout the British Empire in 1859. Originally highly autonomous, the units of volunteers became increa ...
that saw extensive combat during three major wars with
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, several border skirmishes with
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
at the
Durand Line The Durand Line (; ; ), also known as the Afghanistan–Pakistan border, is a international border between Afghanistan and Pakistan in South Asia. The western end runs to the border with Iran and the eastern end to the border with China. The D ...
, and a long-running insurgency in the Balochistan region that it has been combatting alongside Iranian security forces since 1948. Since the 1960s, elements of the army have repeatedly been deployed in an advisory capacity in the
Arab states The Arab world ( '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, comprises a large group of countries, mainly located in West Asia and North Africa. While the majority of people in ...
during the Arab–Israeli wars, and to aid the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
-led coalition against
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
during the First Gulf War. Other notable military operations during the global war on terrorism in the 21st century have included: ''Zarb-e-Azb'', ''Black Thunderstorm'', and ''Rah-e-Nijat''. In violation of its constitutional mandate, it has repeatedly overthrown elected civilian governments, overreaching its protected constitutional mandate to "act in the aid of civilian federal governments when called upon to do so". The army has been involved in enforcing
martial law Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties ...
against the federal government with the claim of restoring law and order in the country by dismissing the
legislative branch A legislature (, ) is a deliberative assembly with the authority, legal authority to make laws for a Polity, political entity such as a Sovereign state, country, nation or city on behalf of the people therein. They are often contrasted with th ...
and
parliament In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
on multiple occasions in past decades—while maintaining a wider commercial, foreign and political interest in the country. This has led to allegations that it has acted as a
state within a state Deep state is a term used for (real or imagined) potential, unauthorized and often secret networks of power operating independently of a state's political leadership in pursuit of their own agendas and goals. Although the term originated in Turke ...
. The Pakistan Army is operationally and geographically divided into various corps. The Pakistani constitution mandates the role of the
president of Pakistan The president of Pakistan () is the head of state of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The president is the nominal head of the executive and the supreme commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces.
as the civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistani military. The Pakistan Army is commanded by the Chief of Army Staff, also known as (; ''romanized'' ''Sipah Salaar)'' who is by statute (although typically) a
four star general Military star ranking is military terminology, used in mainly English speaking countries, to describe General officer, general and flag officers. Within Member states of NATO, NATO's armed forces, the stars are equal to Ranks and insignia of NATO, ...
and a senior member of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC), (); is an administrative body of senior high-ranking uniformed military leaders of the unified Pakistan Armed Forces who advises the civilian government of Pakistan, National Security Council, Defen ...
appointed by the
prime minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
and subsequently affirmed by the president. , the current Chief of Army Staff is Field Marshal Asim Munir, who was appointed to the position on 29 November 2022.


Mission

Its existence and constitutional role are protected by the
Constitution of Pakistan The Constitution of Pakistan ( ; ISO 15919, ISO: '' Āīn-ē-Pākistān''), also known as the 1973 Constitution, is the supreme law of Pakistan. The document guides Pakistan's law, political culture, and system. It sets out the state's outlin ...
, where its role is to serve as the land-based uniform service branch of the
Pakistan Armed Forces The Pakistan Armed Forces (; ) are the military forces of Pakistan. It is the world's sixth-largest military measured by active military personnel and consists of three uniformed services—the Army, Navy, and the Air Force, which are backe ...
. The Constitution of Pakistan establishes the principal
land warfare Land warfare or ground warfare is the process of military operations eventuating in combat that takes place predominantly on the battlespace land surface of the planet. Land warfare is categorized by the use of large numbers of combat personne ...
uniform branch in the Pakistan Armed Forces as its states:


History


Division of British Indian Army and the first war with India (1947–52)

The Pakistan Army came into its modern birth from the division of the
British Indian Army The Indian Army was the force of British Raj, British India, until Indian Independence Act 1947, national independence in 1947. Formed in 1895 by uniting the three Presidency armies, it was responsible for the defence of both British India and ...
that ceased to exist as a result of the
partition of India The partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent dominion states, the Dominion of India, Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The Union of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Paki ...
that resulted in the
creation of Pakistan The Pakistan Movement was a religiopolitical and social movement that emerged in the early 20th century as part of a campaign that advocated the creation of an Islamic state in parts of what was then British Raj. It was rooted in the two-nation th ...
on 14 August 1947. Before even the partition took place, there were plans ahead of dividing the British Indian Army into different parts based on the religious and ethnic influence on the areas of India. On 30 June 1947, the War Department of the British administration in India began planning the dividing of the ~400,000 men strong British Indian Army, but that only began few weeks before the partition of India that resulted in violent
religious violence in India Religious violence in India includes acts of violence by followers of one religious group against followers and institutions of another religious group, often in the form of rioting. Religious violence in India has generally involved Hindus and ...
. The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee (AFRC) under the chairmanship of British
Field Marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...
Sir
Claude Auchinleck Field marshal (United Kingdom), Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck ( ) (21 June 1884 – 23 March 1981), was a British Indian Army commander who saw active service during the world wars. A career soldier who spent much of his militar ...
had devised the formula to divide the military assets between India and Pakistan with ratio of 2:1, respectively. A major division of the army was overseen by Sir Chandulal Madhavlal Trivedi, an Indian
civil servant The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
who was influential in making sure that ~260,000 men would be transferred into forming the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
whilst the remaining balance going to Pakistan after the independence act was enacted by the United Kingdom on the night of 14/15 August 1947. Command and control at all levels of the new army was extremely difficult, as Pakistan had received six armoured, eight
artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...
and eight
infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
regiments compared to the twelve armoured, forty artillery and twenty-one infantry regiments that went to India. In total, the size of the new army was about ~150,000 men strong. To fill the vacancy in the command positions of the new army, around 13,500 military officers from the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
had to be employed in the Pakistan Army, which was quite a large number, under the command of
Lieutenant-General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normall ...
Frank Messervy, the first commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army. Eminent fears of
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
's seizing the control over the state of
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
, the armed
tribes The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflict ...
and the irregular militia entered in the Muslim-majority valley of Kashmir to oppose the rule of
Hari Singh Hari Singh Bahadur (September 1895 – 26 April 1961) was the last ruling Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir of the Dogra dynasty. Hari Singh was the son of Amar Singh and Bhotiali Chib. In 1923, following his uncle's deat ...
, a
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
and the ruling Maharaja of Kashmir, in October 1947. Attempting to maintain his control over the princely state,
Hari Singh Hari Singh Bahadur (September 1895 – 26 April 1961) was the last ruling Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir of the Dogra dynasty. Hari Singh was the son of Amar Singh and Bhotiali Chib. In 1923, following his uncle's deat ...
deployed his troops to check on the tribal advances but his troops failed to halt the advancing tribes towards the valley. Eventually,
Hari Singh Hari Singh Bahadur (September 1895 – 26 April 1961) was the last ruling Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir of the Dogra dynasty. Hari Singh was the son of Amar Singh and Bhotiali Chib. In 1923, following his uncle's deat ...
appealed to
Louis Mountbatten Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma (born Prince Louis of Battenberg; 25 June 1900 – 27 August 1979), commonly known as Lord Mountbatten, was a British statesman, Royal Navy of ...
, the
Governor-General of India The governor-general of India (1833 to 1950, from 1858 to 1947 the viceroy and governor-general of India, commonly shortened to viceroy of India) was the representative of the monarch of the United Kingdom in their capacity as the emperor o ...
, requesting for the deployment of the
Indian Armed Forces The Indian Armed Forces are the armed forces, military forces of the India, Republic of India. It consists of three professional uniformed services: the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force.—— Additionally, the Indian Ar ...
but Indian government maintained that the troops could be committed if Hari Singh acceded to India. Hari Singh eventually agreed to concede to the
Indian government The Government of India (ISO: Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India or the Central Government) is the national authority of the Republic of India, located in South Asia, consisting of 36 states and union territor ...
terms which eventually led to the deployment of the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
in
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
– this agreement, however, was contested by Pakistan since the agreement did not include the
consent Consent occurs when one person voluntarily agrees to the proposal or desires of another. It is a term of common speech, with specific definitions used in such fields as the law, medicine, research, and sexual consent. Consent as understood i ...
of the
Kashmiri people Kashmiris () also known as Koshurs are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group speaking the Kashmiri language and originating from the Kashmir Valley, which is today located in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir. History The earliest ...
. Sporadic fighting between militia and Indian Army broke out, and units of the Pakistan Army under Maj-Gen. Akbar Khan, eventually joined the militia in their fight against the Indian Army. Although, it was
Lieutenant-General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normall ...
Sir Frank Messervy who opposed the tribal invasion in a cabinet meeting with
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
Liaquat Ali Khan Liaquat Ali Khan (1 October 189516 October 1951) was a Pakistani lawyer, politician and statesman who served as the first prime minister of Pakistan The prime minister of Pakistan (, Roman Urdu, romanized: Wazīr ē Aʿẓam , ) is the he ...
in 1947, later leaving the command of the army in 1947, in a view of that British officers in the Indian and Pakistan Army would be fighting with each other in the war front. It was Lt-Gen. Douglas Gracey who reportedly disobeyed the direct orders from
Muhammad Ali Jinnah Muhammad Ali Jinnah (born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai; 25 December 187611 September 1948) was a barrister, politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as the leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until the inception of Pa ...
, the
Governor-General of Pakistan The governor-general of Pakistan () was the Political representation, representative of the Monarchy of Pakistan, Pakistani monarch in the Dominion of Pakistan, established by the Indian Independence Act 1947. The office of governor-general was ...
, for the deployment of the army units and ultimately issued standing orders that refrained the units of Pakistan Army to further participate in the conflict. By 1948, when it became imperative in Pakistan that India was about to mount a large-scale operation against Pakistan, Gen. Gracey did not object to the deployment of the army units in the conflict against the Indian Army. This earlier insubordination of Gen. Gracey eventually forced India and Pakistan to reach a compromise through the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
' intervention, with Pakistan controlling the
Western Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. The term has since ...
and India controlling the Eastern Kashmir.


20th Century: Cold war and conflict performances


Reorganization under the United States Army (1952–58)

At the time of the partition of
British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in South Asia. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another ...
, British
Field Marshal (United Kingdom) Field marshal (FM) has been the highest rank in the British Army since 1736. A five-star rank with NATO code OF-10, it is equivalent to an Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy), Admiral of the Fleet in the Royal Navy or a Marshal of the Royal Air ...
Sir
Claude Auchinleck Field marshal (United Kingdom), Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck ( ) (21 June 1884 – 23 March 1981), was a British Indian Army commander who saw active service during the world wars. A career soldier who spent much of his militar ...
favored the transfer of the infantry divisions to the Pakistan Army including the 7th, 8th and 9th.Major Nasir Uddin, Juddhey Juddhey Swadhinata, pp55 In 1948, the British army officers in the Pakistan Army established and raised the 10th, 12th, and the 14th infantry divisions— with the 14th being established in
East Bengal East Bengal (; ''Purbô Bangla/Purbôbongo'') was the eastern province of the Dominion of Pakistan, which covered the territory of modern-day Bangladesh. It consisted of the eastern portion of the Bengal region, and existed from 1947 until 195 ...
. In 1950, the 15th Infantry Division was raised with the help from the
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the primary Land warfare, land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of th ...
, followed by the establishment of the 15th Lancers in Sialkot. Dependence on the United States grew furthermore by the Pakistan Army despite it had worrisome concerns to the country's politicians. Between 1950 and 1954, Pakistan Army raised six more armoured regiments under the U.S. Army's guidance: including, 4th Cavalry,
12th Cavalry The 5th Horse is an armoured regiment of the Pakistan Army. It was previously known as the 5th King Edward's Own Lancers Probyn's Horse, which was a regular cavalry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was formed in 1921 by the amalgamation of ...
, 15th Lancers, and 20th Lancers. After the incident involving Gracey's disobedience, there was a strong belief that a native commander of the Pakistan army should be appointed, which resulted in the
Government of Pakistan The Government of Pakistan () (abbreviated as GoP), constitutionally known as the Federal Government, commonly known as the Centre, is the national authority of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, a federal republic located in South Asia, con ...
rejecting the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
Army Board's replacement of Gen. Gracey upon his replacement, in 1951. Eventually,
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
Liaquat Ali Khan Liaquat Ali Khan (1 October 189516 October 1951) was a Pakistani lawyer, politician and statesman who served as the first prime minister of Pakistan The prime minister of Pakistan (, Roman Urdu, romanized: Wazīr ē Aʿẓam , ) is the he ...
approved the promotion paper of Maj-Gen. Iftikhar Khan as the first native commander-in-chief, a graduate of the
Imperial Defence College The Royal College of Defence Studies (RCDS) instructs the most promising senior officers of the British Armed Forces, His Majesty's Diplomatic Service and Civil Service in national defence and international security matters at the highest level ...
in
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
, but died in an aviation accident en route to Pakistan from the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
. After the death of Maj-Gen. Iftikhar, there were four senior major-generals in the army in the race of promotion but the most junior, Maj-Gen. Ayub Khan, whose name was not included in the promotion list was elevated to the promotion that resulted in a lobbying provided by Iskandar Mirza, the Defense Secretary in Ali Khan administration. A tradition of appointment based on favoritism and qualification that is still in practice by the civilian
Prime Ministers A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but rat ...
in Pakistan. Ayub was promoted to the acting rank of full general to command the army as his predecessors Frank Messervy and Douglas Gracey were performing the duty of commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army in the acting rank of general, the neighboring country India's first commanders-in-chief were same in this context. The department of the army under General Ayub Khan steered the army's needs towards heavy focus and dependence towards the imported hardware acquired from the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, in spite of acquiring it from the domestic industry, under the
Military Assistance Advisory Group A Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) is a designation for a group of United States military advisors sent to other countries to assist in the training of conventional armed forces and facilitate military aid. Although numerous MAAGs ope ...
attached to Pakistan in 1954–56. In 1953, the 6th Infantry Division was raised and disbanded the 6th Division in 1956 followed by the disbandment of the 9th Infantry Division as the American assistance was available only for one armored and six infantry divisions. During this time, an army combat brigade team was readily made available by Gen. Ayub Khan to deploy to support the American Army's fighting troops in the
Korean war The Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was s ...
. Working as cabinet minister in Bogra administration, Gen. Ayub's impartiality was greatly questioned by country's politicians and drove Pakistan's defence policy towards the dependence on the United States when the country becoming the party of the
CENTO Cento (; Bolognese dialect, Northern Bolognese: ; Bolognese dialect, City Bolognese: ; Bolognese dialect, Centese: ) is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna, Italy. History The name Cento is a reference to the centur ...
and the SEATO, the
U.S. The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous ...
active measures against the expansion of the global communism. In 1956, the 1st Armored Division in Multan was established, followed by the
Special Forces Special forces or special operations forces (SOF) are military units trained to conduct special operations. NATO has defined special operations as "military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equip ...
in Cherat under the supervision of the U.S Army's Special Forces. Under Gen. Ayub's control, the army had eradicated the British influence but invited the American expansion and had reorganized the
East Bengal Regiment The East Bengal Regiment () is one of the two infantry regiments of the Bangladesh Army, the other being the Bangladesh Infantry Regiment. East Bengal Regiment was founded by Major Abdul Gani. History The East Bengal Regiment was formed on ...
in
East Bengal East Bengal (; ''Purbô Bangla/Purbôbongo'') was the eastern province of the Dominion of Pakistan, which covered the territory of modern-day Bangladesh. It consisted of the eastern portion of the Bengal region, and existed from 1947 until 195 ...
, the Frontier Force Regiment in
Northern Pakistan Northern Pakistan ( ) is a tourism region in northern and north-western parts of Pakistan, comprising the administrative units of Gilgit-Baltistan (formerly known as '' Northern Areas''), Azad Kashmir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Islamabad Capita ...
, Kashmir Regiment in
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
, and
Frontier Corps The Frontier Corps (, reporting name: FC) are a group of four paramilitary forces of Pakistan, operating in the provinces of Balochistan (Pakistan), Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, to maintain law and order while overseeing the country's b ...
in the Western Pakistan. The order of precedence change from Navy–Army–Air Force to Army–Navy-Air Force, with army being the most senior service branch in the structure of the Pakistani military. In 1957, the I Corps was established and headquarter was located in Punjab. Between 1956 and 1958, the schools of infantry and tactics, artillery, ordnance, armoured, medical, engineering, services, aviation, and several other schools and training centers were established with or without U.S. participation.


Military takeovers in Pakistan and second war with India (1958–1969)

As early as 1953, the Pakistan Army became involved in national politics in a view of restoring the law and order situation when
Governor-General Governor-general (plural governors-general), or governor general (plural governors general), is the title of an official, most prominently associated with the British Empire. In the context of the governors-general and former British colonies, ...
Malik Ghulam, with approval from Prime Minister
Khawaja Nazimuddin Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin (19 July 1894 – 22 October 1964), also spelled Khwaja Nazimuddin, was a Pakistani politician and statesman who served as the second Governor-General of Pakistan from 1948 to 1951, and later as the second Prime Minister ...
, dismissed the popularly-mandated
state government A state government is the government that controls a subdivision of a country in a federal form of government, which shares political power with the federal or national government. A state government may have some level of political autonom ...
of
Chief Minister A chief minister is an elected or appointed head of government of – in most instances – a sub-national entity, for instance an administrative subdivision or federal constituent entity. Examples include a state (and sometimes a union ter ...
Mumtaz Daultana in
Punjab Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
, and declared
martial law Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties ...
under Lt-Gen. Azam Khan and Col.
Rahimuddin Khan Rahimuddin Khan (21 July 1926 – 22 August 2022) was a four-star rank Pakistani general who briefly served as the 16th Governor of Sindh in 1988. Previously, he had served as the fourth Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee from 1984 to 19 ...
who successfully quelled the religious agitation in
Lahore Lahore ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Administrative units of Pakistan, Pakistani province of Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab. It is the List of cities in Pakistan by population, second-largest city in Pakistan, after Karachi, and ...
. In 1954, the Pakistan Army's Military Intelligence Corps reportedly sent the intelligence report indicating the rise of
communism Communism () is a political sociology, sociopolitical, political philosophy, philosophical, and economic ideology, economic ideology within the history of socialism, socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a ...
in
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
during the legislative election held in East-Bengal. Within two months of the elections, Prime Minister
Mohammad Ali Bogra Syed Mohammad Ali Chowdhury Bogra (19 October 1909 – 23 January 1963) was an East Pakistani politician, statesman, and a diplomat who served as third prime minister of Pakistan from 1953 to 1955. He was appointed in this capacity in 1953 un ...
, with approval from
Governor-General Governor-general (plural governors-general), or governor general (plural governors general), is the title of an official, most prominently associated with the British Empire. In the context of the governors-general and former British colonies, ...
Malik Ghulam, dismissed another popularly-mandated
state government A state government is the government that controls a subdivision of a country in a federal form of government, which shares political power with the federal or national government. A state government may have some level of political autonom ...
of
Chief Minister A chief minister is an elected or appointed head of government of – in most instances – a sub-national entity, for instance an administrative subdivision or federal constituent entity. Examples include a state (and sometimes a union ter ...
Fazlul Huq in
East Bengal East Bengal (; ''Purbô Bangla/Purbôbongo'') was the eastern province of the Dominion of Pakistan, which covered the territory of modern-day Bangladesh. It consisted of the eastern portion of the Bengal region, and existed from 1947 until 195 ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
, and declared governor's rule under Iskandar Mirza who relied in the Pakistan Army to manage the control and security of the East Bengal at all levels of command. With General Ayub Khan becoming the
Defense Minister A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and military forces, found in states where the government is divid ...
under Ministry of Talents led by Prime Minister Bogra, the involvement of the army in the national politics grew further with the implementation of the controversial
One Unit The One Unit Scheme (; ) was the reorganisation of the provinces of Pakistan by the central Pakistani government. It was led by Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra on 22 November 1954 and passed on 30 September 1955. The government claimed tha ...
program, abolishing the status of Four Provinces, despite the strong protests by the public and the West Pakistan's politicians. Major defense funding and spending was solely focused towards Ayub's army department and the air force department led by Air Marshal
Asghar Khan Mohammad Asghar Khan (17 January 1921 – 5 January 2018) known as ''Night Flyer,'' held the distinction of being the first native and second C-in-C of the PAF, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) from 1957 to 1965. He has been d ...
, giving less priority to the national needs for the Navy. From 1954 to 1958, Ayub Khan was made subjected with receiving multiple service extensions by the civilian Prime Ministers first receiving in 1954 that extended his service to last till 1958. The Pakistan Army under Ayub Khan had been less supportive towards the implementation of the first set of
Constitution of Pakistan The Constitution of Pakistan ( ; ISO 15919, ISO: '' Āīn-ē-Pākistān''), also known as the 1973 Constitution, is the supreme law of Pakistan. The document guides Pakistan's law, political culture, and system. It sets out the state's outlin ...
that had established the
civilian control of the military Civil control of the military is a doctrine in military science, military and political science that places ultimate command responsibility, responsibility for a country's Grand strategy, strategic decision-making in the hands of the state's c ...
, and the army went on to completely endorse and support the first martial law in the country imposed by
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
Iskander Mirza Iskander Ali Mirza (13 November 189913 November 1969) was a Bengali politician, statesman and military general who served as the Dominion of Pakistan's fourth and last governor-general of Pakistan from 1955 to 1956, and then as the Islamic Repub ...
– the army later took control of the power from President Mirza in mere two weeks and installed Ayub Khan as the second
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
. The subsequent change of command resulted in Gen. Musa Khan becoming the army commander with Ayub Khan promoting himself as controversial rank of
field marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...
. In 1969, the Supreme Court reversed its decision and overturned its convictions that called for validation of
martial law Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties ...
in 1958. The army held the referendum and tightly control the political situation through the
intelligence agencies An intelligence agency is a government agency responsible for the collection, analysis, and exploitation of information in support of law enforcement, national security, military, public safety, and foreign policy objectives. Means of inf ...
, and banned the political activities in the country. From 1961 to 1962, military aid continued to Pakistan from the United States and they established the 25th Cavalry, followed by the 24th Cavalry, 22nd, and 23rd Cavalry. In 1960–61, the Army Special Forces was reportedly involved in taking over the control of the administration of Dir from the Nawab of Dir in
Chitral Chitral () is a city situated on the Kunar River, Chitral River in northern area of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It serves as the capital of the Lower Chitral District, and was previously the capital of Chitral District, and before ...
in
North-West Frontier Province The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP; ) was a province of British India from 1901 to 1947, of the Dominion of Pakistan from 1947 to 1955, and of the Pakistan, Islamic Republic of Pakistan from 1970 to 2010. It was established on 9 November ...
over the concerns of Afghan meddling in the region. In 1964–65, the border fighting and tensions flared with the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
with a serious incident taking place near the
Rann of Kutch The Rann of Kutch is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located mostly in the Kutch district of the Indian state of Gujarat, with a minor portion extending into the Sindh province of Pakistan. ...
, followed by the failed covert action to take control of the Indian-side of Kashmir resulted in a
massive retaliation Massive retaliation, also known as a massive response or massive deterrence, is a military doctrine and nuclear strategy in which a state commits itself to retaliate in much greater force in the event of an attack. It is associated with the U. ...
by the Indian Army on 5 August 1965. On the night of 6 September 1965, India opened the front against Pakistan when the Indian Army's mechanized corps charged forwards taking over the control of the Pakistan-side of Punjab, almost reaching
Lahore Lahore ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Administrative units of Pakistan, Pakistani province of Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab. It is the List of cities in Pakistan by population, second-largest city in Pakistan, after Karachi, and ...
. At the time of the conflict in 1965, Pakistan's armory and mechanized units' hardware was imported from the United States including the
M4 Sherman The M4 Sherman, officially medium tank, M4, was the medium tank most widely used by the United States and Western Allies in World War II. The M4 Sherman proved to be reliable, relatively cheap to produce, and available in great numbers. I ...
,
M24 Chaffee The M24 Chaffee (officially light tank M24) was an American light tank used during the later part of World War II; it was also used in post–World War II conflicts including the Korean War, and by the French in the Algerian War, War in Algeri ...
, M36 Jackson, and the M47 and M48 Patton tanks, equipped with 90 mm guns. In contrast, the Indian Army's armor had outdated in technology with Korean war-usage American
M4 Sherman The M4 Sherman, officially medium tank, M4, was the medium tank most widely used by the United States and Western Allies in World War II. The M4 Sherman proved to be reliable, relatively cheap to produce, and available in great numbers. I ...
and World War II manufactured British
Centurion Tank The FV4007 Centurion was the primary main battle tank of the British Army during the post-World War II period. Introduced in 1945, it is one of the most successful post-war tank designs, remaining in production into the 1960s, and seeing comba ...
, fitted with the French-made CN-75 guns. In spite of Pakistan enjoying the numerical advantage in tanks and artillery, as well as better equipment overall, the Indian Army successfully penetrated the defences of Pakistan's borderline and successfully conquered around Musharraf, ''In the Line of Fire'', page 45. of
Pakistani Punjab Punjab (, ) is a province of Pakistan. With a population of over 127 million, it is the most populous province in Pakistan and the second most populous subnational polity in the world. Located in the central-eastern region of the country, i ...
territory on the outskirts of Lahore.Melville de Mellow (28, November 1965). "Battle of Burki was another outstanding infantry operation". Sainik Samachar. A major tank battle took place in Chawinda, at which the newly established 1st Armoured Division was able to halt the Indian invasion. Eventually, the Indian invasion of Pakistan came to halt when the Indian Army concluded the battle near Burki.William M. Carpenter, David G. Wiencek. Asian security handbook: terrorism and the new security environment. M.E. Sharpe, 2005. .John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press, 2001. . With diplomatic efforts and involvement by the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
to bring two nation to end the war, the Ayub administration reached a compromise with Shastri ministry in India when both governments signed and ratified the
Tashkent Declaration The Tashkent Declaration was signed between India and Pakistan on 10 January 1966 to resolve the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Peace was achieved on 23 September through interventions by the Soviet Union and the United States, both of which pus ...
. According to the Library of Congress Country Studies conducted by the Federal Research Division of the United States: According to neural claims Pakistan suffered from 1,500 Soldiers killed and 4,300 wounded and India suffered from 3,712 Soldiers killed and 7,638 wounded. Pakistan lost 200-250 tanks, and India lost 200-300 tanks. However, most neutral assessments agree that India had the upper hand over Pakistan when ceasefire was declared, Quote: Losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. but the propaganda in Pakistan about the war continued in favor of Pakistan Army. The war was not rationally analysed in Pakistan with most of the blame being heaped on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures that persisted until the debacle of the third war with India in 1971. The Indian Army's action was restricted to
Punjab region Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
of both sides with Indian Army mainly in fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors, while Pakistani land gains were primarily in southern deserts opposite
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
and in the Chumb sector near Kashmir in the north. With the United States' arms embargo on Pakistan over the issue of the war, the army instead turned to the Soviet Union and China for hardware acquisition, and correctly assessed that a lack of infantry played a major role in the failure of Pakistani armour to translate its convincing material and technical superiority into a major operational or strategic success against the Indian Army. Ultimately, the army's high command established the 9th, 16th, and 17th infantry divisions in 1966–68. In 1966, the IV Corps was formed and its headquarter was established, and permanently stationed in Lahore,
Punjab Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
. The army remained involved in the nation's civic affairs, and ultimately imposed the second martial law in 1969 when the writ of the constitution was abrogated by then-army commander, Gen.
Yahya Khan Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (4 February 191710 August 1980) was a Pakistani army officer who served as the third president of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971. He also served as the fifth Commander-in-Chief, Pakistan, commander-in-chief of the Pakistan ...
, who took control of the nation's civic affairs after the resignation of President Ayub Khan, resulted in a massive labor strikes instigated by the
Pakistan Peoples Party The Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) is a political party in Pakistan and one of the three major List of political parties in Pakistan, Pakistani political parties alongside the Pakistan Muslim League (N) and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. With a Cent ...
in
West West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
and
Awami League The Awami League, officially known as Bangladesh Awami League, is a major List of political parties in Bangladesh, political party in Bangladesh. The oldest existing political party in the country, the party played the leading role in achievin ...
in
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
. In a lawsuit settled by the
Supreme Court of Pakistan The Supreme Court of Pakistan (; ''Adālat-e-Uzma Pākistān'') is the apex court in the Judiciary of Pakistan, judicial hierarchy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Established in accordance witPart VIIof the Constitution of Pakistan, it h ...
, the legality of the martial law was deemed questionable as the Supreme Court settled the suit by retroactively invalidated the martial law that suspended the
Constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed. When these pri ...
and notably ruled that Yahya Khan's assumption of power was "illegal usurpation". In light of the Supreme Court's judgement, the army held the publicly televised conference when President Yahya Khan announced to hold the nationwide general elections in 1969–70.


Suppression, civil conflict in East Pakistan and Indian invasion (1969–1971)

In 1969,
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
Yahya Khan Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (4 February 191710 August 1980) was a Pakistani army officer who served as the third president of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971. He also served as the fifth Commander-in-Chief, Pakistan, commander-in-chief of the Pakistan ...
decided to make administrative changes in the army by appointing the Gen. Abdul Hamid Khan as the Army Chief of Staff (ACOS) of the Pakistan Army, who centralized the chain of command in Rawalpindi in a headquarters known as "High Command". From 1967 to 1969, a series of major military exercises was conducted by infantry units on East Pakistan's border with India. In 1970, the Pakistan army's military mission in
Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...
was reportedly involved in tackling and curbing down the Palestinian infiltration in Jordan. In June 1971, the enlistment in the army had allowed the Army GHQ in Rawalpindi to raise and established the 18th infantry division, stationed in
Hyderabad Hyderabad is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India. With an average altitude of , much ...
,
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
, for the defence of from Rahimyar Khan to
Rann of Kutch The Rann of Kutch is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located mostly in the Kutch district of the Indian state of Gujarat, with a minor portion extending into the Sindh province of Pakistan. ...
, and restationed the 23rd infantry division for defending the Chhamb-Dewa Sector. In 1971, the II Corps was established and headquartered in Multan, driven towards defending the mass incursion from the Indian Army. In December 1971, the 33rd infantry division was established from the army reserves of the II Corps, followed by raising the 37th Infantry Division. Pakistan Army reportedly helped the
Pakistan Navy The Pakistan Navy (PN) (; ''romanized'': Pākistān Bahrí'a; ) is the naval warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The Chief of the Naval Staff, a four-star admiral, commands the navy and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Com ...
towards establishing its amphibious branch, the
Pakistan Marines The Pakistan Marines (Urdu: ) or simply as Pak Marines, is an expeditionary and amphibious warfare uniform service branch within the Pakistan Navy, consisting of the naval officers and other personnel to perform their duties within the Marine ...
, whose
battalion A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of up to one thousand soldiers. A battalion is commanded by a lieutenant colonel and subdivided into several Company (military unit), companies, each typically commanded by a Major (rank), ...
s was airlifted to
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
along with the 9th Infantry Division. The intervention in East Pakistan further grew when the
Operation Searchlight Operation Searchlight was a military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army in an effort to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in former East Pakistan in March 1971. Pakistan retrospectively justified the operation on the basis of ant ...
resulted in the overtaking of the government buildings, communication centers, and restricting the politicians opposed to military rule. Within a month, Pakistani national security strategists realized their failure of implementing the plan which had not anticipated civil resistance in East, and the real nature of Indian strategy behind their support of the resistance. The Yahya administration is widely accused of permitting the army to commit the war crimes against the civilians in East and curbing civil liberties and human rights in Pakistan. The Eastern Command under Lt-Gen. A. A. K. Niazi, who had area responsibility of the defending the Eastern Front and had the responsibility to protect, was leveled with accusations of escalating the political violence in the East by the serving military officers, politicians, and journalists in Pakistan. Since the
general elections A general election is an electoral process to choose most or all members of a governing body at the same time. They are distinct from by-elections, which fill individual seats that have become vacant between general elections. General elections ...
in 1970, the army had detained several key politicians, journalists, peace activists, student unionists, and other members of civil society while curbing the freedoms of movement and speech in Pakistan. In East Pakistan, the unified Eastern Military Command under Lt-Gen. A.A.K. Niazi, began its engagement with the armed militia that had support from
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
in April 1971, and eventually fought against the Indian Army in December 1971. The army, together with marines, launched ground offensives on both fronts but the Indian Army successfully held its ground and initiated well-coordinated ground operations on both fronts, initially capturing of Pakistan's territory; this land gained by India in
Azad Kashmir Azad Jammu and Kashmir (), abbreviated as AJK and colloquially referred to as simply Azad Kashmir ( ), is a region administered by Pakistan as a nominally self-governing entitySee: * * * and constituting the western portion of the larger ...
,
Punjab Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
and
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
sectors. Responding to the ultimatum issued on 16 December 1971 by the Indian Army in East, Lt-Gen. Niazi agreed to concede defeat and move towards signing the documented surrender with the Indian Army which effectively and unilaterally ended the
armed resistance A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily Weapon, armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable ...
and led the creation of
Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...
, only after India's official engagement that lasted 13 days. It was reported that the Eastern Command had surrendered ~93,000–97,000 uniform personnel to Indian Army– the largest surrender in a war by any country after the
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
. Casualties inflicted to army's I Corps, II Corps, and Marines did not sit well with President Yahya Khan who turned over control of the civic government to
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister and politician who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan from 19 ...
through an executive decree. Commenting on the defeat, the military observer in the Pakistan Army, Major A.H. Amin, reported that the war strategists in the army had not seriously considered a full-fledged invasion from India until December 1971, because it was presumed that the Indian military would not risk intervention by China or the United States, and the high command failed to realize that the Chinese would be unable to intervene during the winter months of November to December, due to snowbound Himalayan passes, and the Americans had not made any real effort to persuade India against attacking East Pakistan.


Restructuring of armed forces, stability and restoration (1971–1977)

In January 1972, the Bhutto administration formed the POW Commission to investigate the numbers of war prisoners held by the Indian Army while requesting the
Supreme Court of Pakistan The Supreme Court of Pakistan (; ''Adālat-e-Uzma Pākistān'') is the apex court in the Judiciary of Pakistan, judicial hierarchy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Established in accordance witPart VIIof the Constitution of Pakistan, it h ...
to investigate the causes of the war failure with India in 1971. The
Supreme Court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
formed the famed War Enquiry Commission (WEC) that identified many failures, fractures, and faults within the institution of the department of the army and submitted recommendations to strengthen the armed forces overall. Under the Yahya administration, the army was highly demoralized and there were unconfirmed reports of mutiny by soldiers against the senior army generals at the Corps garrisons and the Army GHQ in Rawalpindi. Upon returning from the quick visit in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
in
1971 * The year 1971 had three partial solar eclipses (Solar eclipse of February 25, 1971, February 25, Solar eclipse of July 22, 1971, July 22 and Solar eclipse of August 20, 1971, August 20) and two total lunar eclipses (February 1971 lunar eclip ...
, President Bhutto forcefully dishonourably discharge seven senior army generals, which he called the "army waderas" (). In 1972, the army leadership under Lt-Gen. Gul Hassan refrained from acting under Bhutto administration's order to tackle the labor strikes in Karachi and to detained the labor union leaders in Karachi, instead advising the federal government to use the
Police Department The police are a constituted body of people empowered by a state with the aim of enforcing the law and protecting the public order as well as the public itself. This commonly includes ensuring the safety, health, and possessions of citize ...
to take the actions. On 2 March 1972, President Bhutto dismissed Lt-Gen. Gul Hassan as the army commander, replacing with Lt-Gen.
Tikka Khan Tikka Khan, also known as the Butcher of Bengal.Tikka Khan title: * * * * * * * * (; 10 February 1915 – 28 March 2002) was a Pakistani military officer and war criminal who served as the first Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan), chief of the a ...
who was later promoted to four-star rank and appointed as the first Chief of Army Staff (COAS). The army under Bhutto administration was reconstructed in its structure, improving its fighting ability, and reorganized with the establishment of the X Corps in
Punjab Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
in
1974 Major events in 1974 include the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis and the resignation of United States President Richard Nixon following the Watergate scandal. In the Middle East, the aftermath of the 1973 Yom Kippur War determined politics; ...
, followed by the V Corps in
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
and XI Corps in the
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a province of Pakistan. Located in the northwestern region of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the fourth largest province of Paki ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
in 1975 in Pakistan, 1975. The Delhi Agreement, trilateral agreement in India, the Zulfikar Ali Bhutto#Prime Minister of Pakistan, Bhutto administration transferred all the Prisoners of war during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, war prisoners back to the country but the military struggle to fill in the vacancies and employments due to some suffering from the Posttraumatic stress disorder, PTSD and other mental health complications, while others simply did not wanted to serve in the military any longer. During Bhutto's administration, Pakistan's military pursued a policy of greater self-reliance in arms production. This involved efforts to develop domestic capabilities for manufacturing weapons and military equipment. To address material shortages, Pakistan also turned to China for cooperation in establishing essential metal and material industries. In 1973 in Pakistan, 1973, the Zulfikar Ali Bhutto#Prime Minister of Pakistan, Bhutto administration dismissed the Government of Balochistan, Pakistan, state government in Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan that resulting in another Separatism in Pakistan, separatist movement, culminating the series of 1970s operation in Balochistan, army actions in largest province of the country that ended in 1977. With the military aid receiving from Iran including the transfer of the Bell AH-1 Cobra to Pakistan Army Aviation Corps, Aviation Corps, the conflict came to end with the Pakistani government offering the general Amnesty International, amnesties to separatists in the 1980s. Over the issue of Baloch conflict, the Pakistani military remained engage in Dhofar Rebellion, Omani civil war in favor of Omani government until the rebels were defeated in 1979. The War Enquiry Commission noted the lack of joint grand strategy between the four-branches of the military during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, first, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, second, and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, third wars with India, recommending the establishment of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC), (); is an administrative body of senior high-ranking uniformed military leaders of the unified Pakistan Armed Forces who advises the civilian government of Pakistan, National Security Council, Defen ...
to maintain strategic military communication between the inter-services and the federal government, that is to be chaired by the appointed Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, Chairman joint chiefs as the government's principal military adviser. In 1976 in Pakistan, 1976, the first Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, Chairman joint chiefs was appointed from the army with Gen. Muhammad Shariff taking over the chairmanship, but resigned a year later. In 1975 in Pakistan, 1975, Prime Minister
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister and politician who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan from 19 ...
controversially superseded at least seven senior army generals to promote Lt-Gen. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Zia-ul-Haq to the four-star rank, appointing him the Chief of Army Staff (COAS) in spite of army recommendations forwarded to the federal government. In the 1970s, the army's engineering formations, notable the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers, Corps of Engineers, played a crucial role in supporting the Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program, clandestine atomic bomb program to reach its parity and feasibility, including the constructions of iron-steel tunnels in the secretive Nuclear test site, nuclear weapons-testing sites in 1977–78. Pakistan Air Force, PAF and Pakistan Navy, Navy fighter pilots voluntarily served in Middle East, Arab nations' militaries against Israel in the Yom Kippur War (1973). According to modern Pakistani sources, in 1974 one of the PAF pilots, Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot down an Israeli Air Force Mirage flown by Captain M. Lutz, and was honoured by the Syrian government. The Israeli pilot later succumbed to wounds he sustained during ejection. However, no major sources from the time reported on such an incident, and there is no mention of "Captain Lutz" in Ministry of Defense (Israel), Israel's Ministry of Defense's record of Israel's casualties of war.


Middle East operations, peacekeeping missions, and covert actions (1977–1999)

The political instability increased in the country when the Pakistan National Alliance, conservative alliance refused to accept the Voter turnout, voting turnout in favor of
Pakistan Peoples Party The Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) is a political party in Pakistan and one of the three major List of political parties in Pakistan, Pakistani political parties alongside the Pakistan Muslim League (N) and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. With a Cent ...
(PPP) after the 1977 Pakistani general election, general elections held in 1977. The army, under Gen. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Zia-ul-Haq–the Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan), army chief, began planning the military takeover of the federal government under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Prime Minister Zulfikar Bhutto, eventually leading the Operation Fair Play, coup d'état that suspended the writ of the Constitution of Pakistan, Constitution amid responding to the call from one of the Asghar Khan, opposition leader of threatening to call for another civil war. The military interference in civic matters grew further when the
martial law Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties ...
was extended for an infinite period despite maintaining that the elections to be held in 90-days prior. At the request from the Saudi Government, Saudi monarchy, the Zia Administration, Zia administration deployed the company of the Special Service Group, special forces to end 1979 Grand Mosque seizure, seizure of the Great Mosque of Mecca, Grand Mosque in Mecca from Ikhwan, Islamists. The army under
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Zia weakened due to the army officers were needed in running the affairs of civic government and the controversial Jam Saqi case, military courts that held trials of the Movement for Restoration of Democracy, communists, dissidents, and the oppositions of Zia Administration, Zia's administration. In 1984–85, Pakistan lost the control of her Siachen Glacier, northern glaciers due to the Operation Meghdoot, successful expedition and penetration by the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
, and army had to engage in Siachen conflict, years long difficult battles with Indian Army to regain their areas from the Indian Army. Concerns over the military officers and army personnel needed to counter the further advances by the Indian Army in Northern fronts in 1984, the martial law was lifted following the 1984 Pakistani Islamisation programme referendum, referendum that approved Zia's presidency and provided a way of holding the 1985 Pakistani general election, general elections in 1985. The Martial Law Administrator of Balochistan, military control the under army administration had successfully Rahimuddin's Stabilization of Balochistan, stabilized the law and order in Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan despite the Afghan refugees in Pakistan, massive illegal immigration from
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
, and issued the general amnesties to separatists and rebels. To address the Afghan containment and security, the army established the XII Corps (Pakistan), XII Corps in 1985 that is permanently headquartered in Quetta, that is designed to provide defence against the infiltration by the Afghan National Army from
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
. In 1985, the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
approved the military aid package, worth $4.02 billion, to Pakistan when the Soviet-Afghan war, mujaheddin fighting with the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
in Socialist Afghanistan, Afghanistan increased and intensified, with 40th Army (Soviet Union), Soviet Army began violating and attacking the insurgents in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, tribal areas in Pakistan. In 1986, the tensions with India increased when the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
's standing troops Operation Brasstacks, mobilized in combat position in Pakistan's southern frontier with India failing to give notification of exercise to Pakistan prior. In 1987–88, the XXX Corps (Pakistan), XXX Corps, headquartered in North of Punjab, and the XXXI Corps (Pakistan), XXXI Corps, headquartered in South of Punjab, was raised and established to provide defence against the Indian army's mass infiltration. After the Death and state funeral of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, aviation accident that resulted in passing of President Zia in 1988, the army organized the Exercise Zarb–e–Momin, massive military exercise with the
Pakistan Air Force The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) (; ) is the aerial warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces, tasked primarily with the aerial defence of Pakistan, with a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy when re ...
to evaluate the technological assessment of the weapon systems and operational readiness. In the 1980s, Pakistan Army remained engage in the affairs of Middle East, first being Pakistan Armed Forces deployments in Saudi Arabia, deployed in Saudi Arabia during the Iran–Iraq War in 1980–1988, and later overseeing operational support measures and combat actions during the Gulf War in 1990–91. The period from 1991 to 1998 saw the army engaged in professionalism and proved its fighting skills in the Somali Civil War (1991-ongoing), Somalian theater (1991–94), Bosnian-Serb War (on Bosnian side from 1994 to 1998), and the other theaters of the
Yugoslav Wars The Yugoslav Wars were a series of separate but related#Naimark, Naimark (2003), p. xvii. ethnic conflicts, wars of independence, and Insurgency, insurgencies that took place from 1991 to 2001 in what had been the Socialist Federal Republic of ...
, as part of the United Nation's deployment. In 1998, the army's Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army, Corps of Engineers played a crucial role in providing the military administration of preparing the List of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan, atomic weapon-testing in Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan when the Pakistan Air Force, air force's bombers flew and airlifted the Nuclear devices, atomic devices. The controversial Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's relief of General Jehangir Karamat, relief of Gen. Jehangir Karamat by the Second Sharif ministry, Sharif administration reportedly disturbed the balance of the civil-military relations with the junior most Lt-Gen. Pervez Musharraf replacing it as chairman joint chiefs and the army chief in 1999. In May 1999, the Northern Light Infantry, a paramilitary unit based in Gilgit, slipped into Kargil district, Kargil that resulted in Kargil war, heavy border fighting with the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
, inflicted with heavy casualties on both sides. The ill-devised plan without meaningful consideration of the outcomes of the Kargil war, border war with India, the army under Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, Chairman joint chiefs Gen. Pervez Musharraf (also Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan), army chief at that time) failed to its combat performance and suffered with Operation Gibraltar, similar outcomes as the previous plan in 1965, with the American military observers in the Pakistan military famously commenting to news channels in Pakistan: Kargil was yet another example of Pakistan's (lack of) grand strategy, repeating the follies of the Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts, previous wars with India."


21st Century: War performances


Religious insurgency and War on terror (2001 – present)

Responding to the September 11 attacks, terror attacks in New York City, New York in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, the army joined the US invasion of Afghanistan, combat actions in Afghanistan with the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
and simultaneously engage in 2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff, military standoff with
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
in 2001–02. In 2004–06, the military observers from the army were deployed to guide the Sri Lankan army to end the Sri Lankan civil war, civil war with the LTTE Insurgency, Tamil fighters. To overcome the governance crises in 2004–07, the Pervez Musharraf, Musharraf administration appointed several army officers in the civilian institutions with some receiving extensions while others were deployed from their combat service– thus affecting the fighting capabilities and weakening the army. Under Gen. Musharraf's leadership, the army's capabilities fighting the Pakistani Taleban, fanatic Talibans and Afghan Arabs in Pakistan, Afghan Arab fighters in Pakistan further weakened and suffered First Battle of Swat, serious setbacks in gaining control of the FATA, tribal belt that fell under the control of the Afghan Arabs in Pakistan, Afghan Arabs and Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, Uzbek fighters. From 2006 to 2009, the army fought the series of Violence in Pakistan 2006–09, bloody battles with the fanatic Afghan Arabs in Pakistan, Afghan Arabs and other Foreign Mujahideen, foreign fighters including the Siege of Lal Masjid, army action in a Lal Masjid, Islamabad, Red Mosque in Islamabad to control the Islamic extremism, religious fanaticism. With the controversial assassination of Akbar Bugti, Baloch politician in 2006, the army had to engage in battles with the Baloch separatists fighting for the Balochistan's autonomy. In April 2007, the major reorganization of the commands of the army was taken place under Gen. Ahsan Saleem Hayat, the Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan), vice army chief under Gen. Musharraf, established the Southern, Central, and the Northern Commands. With Gen. Musharraf's resignation and Gen. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani becoming the Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan), army chief, the army realigned itself to review its combat policies and withdrew officers in civilian institutions to focus on its primary constitutional mission to Responsibility to protect, protect and Area of responsibility, responsible in 2009–14. In 2012, there was a serious accident involving the entire battalion from the Northern Light Infantry when the 2012 Siachen Glacier avalanche, avalanche struck the battalion base in Siachen Glacier, Siachen, entrapping 135 soldiers and including several army officers. In 2013–16, the War in North-West Pakistan, homegrown far-right guerrilla war with the Pakistani Taleban, Taliban, Afghan Arabs in Pakistan, Afghan Arabs, and the Terrorism in Central Asia, Central Asian fighters took the Operation Zarb-e-Azb, decisive turn in favor of the army under Third Sharif ministry, Sharif administration, eventually gaining the control of the entire country and established the writ of the constitution in the affected lawless regions. As of its current deployment as of 2019, the army India–Pakistan border skirmishes (2016–2018), remained engage in border fighting with the Indian Army while Pakistan Armed Forces deployments in Saudi Arabia, deploying its combat strike brigade teams in Saudi Arabia in a response of Saudi-led intervention in Yemen, Saudi intervention in Yemen.


Organization


Command and control structure

Leadership in the army is provided by the Minister of Defence (Pakistan), Minister of Defense, usually leading and controlling the direction of the department of the army from the Army Secretariat-I at the Ministry of Defence (Pakistan), Ministry of Defense, with the Defense Secretary who is responsible for the bureaucratic affairs of the army's department. The Constitution of Pakistan, Constitution empowers the President of Pakistan, an elected civilian official, to act as the Commander-in-Chief while the
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
, an elected civilian, to act as the Chief Executive Officer, Chief Executive. The Chief of Army Staff, an appointed four-star rank army general, is the highest general officer, under Chairman
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC), (); is an administrative body of senior high-ranking uniformed military leaders of the unified Pakistan Armed Forces who advises the civilian government of Pakistan, National Security Council, Defen ...
and Secretary Defense, who acts as the principal military adviser on the Expeditionary warfare, expeditionary and Army, land/ground warfare affairs, and a senior member of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC), (); is an administrative body of senior high-ranking uniformed military leaders of the unified Pakistan Armed Forces who advises the civilian government of Pakistan, National Security Council, Defen ...
– a military body that advises and briefs the elected
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
and its Cabinet of Pakistan, executive cabinet on national security affairs and operational military matters under the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC), (); is an administrative body of senior high-ranking uniformed military leaders of the unified Pakistan Armed Forces who advises the civilian government of Pakistan, National Security Council, Defen ...
. The single combat headquarter, the Army GHQ, is located in Rawalpindi Cantonment in
Punjab Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
in
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
, in the vicinity of the Joint Staff Headquarters (Pakistan), Joint Staff Headquarters. The Chief of Army Staff controls and commands the army at all levels of operational command, and is assisted the number of Staff (military), Principal Staff Officers (PSOs) who are three-star rank generals. The military administration under the Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan), army chief operating at the Army GHQ including the appointed Principal Staff Officers: * Chief of General Staff (Pakistan), Chief of General Staff, under whom the Military Operations and Intelligence Directorates function. * Chief of Logistics Staff. * Quartermaster general, Quartermaster General (QMG). * Master General of Ordnance (Pakistan), Master General of Ordnance (MGO). * Engineer-in-Chief (Pakistan Army), Engineer-in-Chief, the chief army engineer and topographer. * Judge Advocate General (Pakistan Army), Judge Advocate General. * Military Secretary (Pakistan), Military Secretary. * Comptroller of Civilian Personnel. In 2008, a major introduction was made in the military bureaucracy at the General Headquarters (Pakistan Army), Army GHQ under Gen. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, when two new PSO positions were introduced: the Inspector-General of Arms and the Inspector-General Communications and Information Technology, IT. The Army's corps are divided into three regional-level Command (military formation), commands which are assigned for defending the Administrative units of Pakistan, territories of
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
.


Personnel


Commissioned officers

The Commissioned officer, commissioned Army ranks and insignia of Pakistan, army ranks and insignia authorized in the Pakistan Army are modified and patterned on the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
's British Army officer rank insignia, officer ranks and insignia system. There are several paths of becoming the commissioned officer in the army including the admission and required graduation from the Pakistan Military Academy in Kakul Military Academy, Kakul. To become an officer in the army, the academic four-year college degree is required for the candidates to become officers in the army, and therefore they are designated by insignia unique to their staff community. Selection to the officer candidates is highly competitive with ~320–700 individuals are allowed to enter in the Pakistan Military Academy annually, with a small number of already Graduate student, graduated physicians, specialists, Veterinary physician, veterinaries and the engineers from the Universities in Pakistan, civilian universities are directly recruited in the administrative staff corps such as Pakistan Army Medical Corps, Medical Corps, Veterinary Corps, Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army, Engineering Corps, Dental Corps and these graduated individuals are the heart of the administrative corps. The product of a highly competitive selection process, members of the staff corps have completed twelve years of education in their respected fields (such as attending the schools and universities), and has to spend two years at the Pakistan Military Academy, with their time divided about equally between military training and academic work to bring them up to a baccalaureate education level, which includes English-language skills. The Department of Army also offers employment to civilians in financial management, accountancy, engineering, construction, and administration, and has currently employed 6,500 civilians. The military officers in the Pakistani military seek retirement between the ages of forty-two and sixty, depending on their ranks, and often seeks employment in the Government of Pakistan, federal government or the Corporate sector of Pakistan, private sector where the pay scales are higher as well as the opportunity for gain considerably greater.


Warrant officers

The Pakistan Army uniquely uses the junior commissioned officer (JCO) ranks, equivalent of the Warrant officer (United States), Warrant officers or the Limited duty officers in the United States military, inherited from the former
British Indian Army The Indian Army was the force of British Raj, British India, until Indian Independence Act 1947, national independence in 1947. Formed in 1895 by uniting the three Presidency armies, it was responsible for the defence of both British India and ...
introduced by the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
between the enlisted and officer ranks. The JCOs are single-track specialists with their subject of expertise in their particular part of the job and initially appointed (NS1) after risen from their enlisted ranks, receiving the promotion (SM3) from the commanding officer. The usage of the junior commissioned officer is the continuation of the former Viceroy's commissioned officer rank, and the JCO ranking system benefited the army since there was a large gap existed between the officers and the enlisted personnel at the time of the establishment of the new army in 1947. Over the several years, the JCOs rank system has outlived its usefulness because the educational level of the enlisted personnel has risen and the army has more comfortably adopted the United States Army, U.S. Army's ranking platform than the British. Promotion to the Junior commissioned officer, JCO ranks remains a powerful and influential incentive for that enlisted personnel desire not to attend the accredited four-year college.


Enlisted personnel

The recruiting and enlistment in the army is nationwide but the army's recruiting command maintains an ethnic balance, with those who turned away are encourage to join the either the Pakistan Marines, Marines or the Pakistan Air Force, Air Force. Most enlisted personnel had come from the Pakistani village life, poor and rural families with many had only rudimentary literacy skills in the History of Pakistan, past, but with the increase in the Education in Pakistan, affordable education have risen to the Matriculation in Pakistan, matriculation level (12th Grade). In the past, the army recruits had to re-educate the illiterate personnel while processing them gradually through a paternalistically run regimental training center, teaching the official language, Urdu, if necessary, and given a period of elementary education before their military training actually starts. In the thirty-six-week training period, they develop an attachment to the regiment they will remain with through much of their careers and begin to develop a sense of being a Pakistani rather than primarily a member of a tribe or a village. Enlisted personnel usually serve for eighteen to twenty years, before retiring or gaining a commission, during which they participate in regular military training cycles and have the opportunity to take academic courses to help them advance. The Non-commissioned officer, noncommissioned officers (or enlists) wear respective regimental color chevrons on the right sleeve. Center point of the uppermost chevron must remain 10 cm from the point of the shoulder. The Company/battalion appointments wear the appointments badges on the right wrist. Pay scales and incentives are greater and attractive upon enlistment including the allocation of land, free housing, and financial aid to attend the colleges and universities. Retirement age for the enlisted personnel varies and depends on the enlisted ranks that they have attained during their services.


Recruitment and training

Prior to August 1947, the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
's recruiting administration had recruited the enlists from the districts of the Jhelum District, Jhelum, Rawalpindi District, Rawalpindi, and Attock District, Campbellpur that dominated the recruitment flows. From 1947 to 1971, the Pakistan Army was predominantly favored to recruit from
Punjab Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
and was popular in the country as the "Punjabi Army" because of heavy recruiting interests coming from the Pakistani village life, rural and poor families of villages in Punjab as well as being the most populous province of Pakistan. Even as of today, the Pakistan Army's recruiters struggle to enlist citizens and their selfless commitment to the military from the Urbanisation in Pakistan, urban areas (i.e. Karachi and Peshawar) where the preference of the college education is quite popular (especially attending Postgraduate education, post-graduate schools in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
and the Commonwealth of Nations, English-speaking countries) as well as working in the settled Industry of Pakistan, private industry for lucrative salaries and benefits, while the military enlistment still comes from the most rural and remote areas of Pakistan, where commitment to the military is much greater than in the Urbanisation in Pakistan, metropolitan cities. After 1971, the Bhutto administration introduced the Quota system in Pakistan, Quota system and drastically reduced the officers and enlists from Punjab and gave strong preference to residents in
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
, Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan, and
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a province of Pakistan. Located in the northwestern region of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the fourth largest province of Paki ...
, and such policy continue to exists to maintain an ethnic balance in the army. Those who are turned away are strongly encourage to join the Pakistan Marines Corps, Marines Corps or the Pakistan Air Force, Air Force. In 1991, the department of the army drastically reduced the size of personnel from Punjab, downsizing the army personnel to 63%, and issues acceptable medical waivers interested enlists while encouraging citizens of
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a province of Pakistan. Located in the northwestern region of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the fourth largest province of Paki ...
and
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
. This decision has given a fair chance to every citizen of Pakistan to be part of the Pakistan Army as each district possesses a fixed percentage of seats in all branches of the Army, as per census records. By 2003–05, the department of army continued its policy by drastically downsizing the personnel from Punjab to 43–70%. The Department of Army has relaxed its recruitment and medical standards in
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
and Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan where the height requirement of 5 feet 4 inches is considered acceptable even with the enlists educational level at eighth grade is acceptable for the waiver; since the army recruiters take responsibility of providing education to 12th grade to the interested enlists from Balochistan and Sindh. In Punjab and
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a province of Pakistan. Located in the northwestern region of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the fourth largest province of Paki ...
where the recruitment is popular, the height requirement remains to be at 5 feet 6 inches with minimum education of 10th grade. The army cadets undergo training in Kakol, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Kakul at the Pakistan Military Academy where basic training takes place. Such training usually lasts for two years until the cadets are able to meet their graduation requirements from the academy. All the cadets have to attend and be trained at the PMA regardless of attending the military schools and colleges in other parts of the country. Duration wise, it is one of the longest military training period in the country, and the training continues for two years until the cadet is being able Passing out (military), pass out from the academy, before selecting the college to start the career of their choice in the military.


Women and religion in the Pakistan Army

Women have been part of the Pakistan Army since 1947, and from the army's inception to 2018 approximately 4,000 women served the army though most women were doctors and civilians. In the years of 1947, '48 and '49, women were inducted into the Women's Guard Section of the Pakistan National Guard, National Guard and trained in medical work, welfare, and clerical positions (this was later disbanded). Pakistan Army has a separate cadet course for women which is known as 'Lady Cadet Course', female cadets are trained in Pakistan Military Academy. After induction, women army officers go through a six-month military training at the Pakistan Military Academy which is not like their male counterparts. The comprehensive training includes military education and development of physical efficiency skills. Pakistan is the only Muslim-majority nation which appoints women to general officer ranks, such as Major-General Shahida Malik, the first woman army officer and military physician by profession who was promoted to a two-star rank. In July 2013, the Army trained female paratrooper officers for the first time. In 2020, Nigar Johar became the first female Lieutenant general (Pakistan), Lieutenant General in the army, she was from the Pakistan Army Medical Corps. The Army recruits from all religions in Pakistan including Hinduism in Pakistan, Hindus, Sikhism in Pakistan, Sikhs, Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrians, Christianity in Pakistan, Christians who have held command-level positions. Religious services are provided by the Chaplain Corps for Muslims, Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, and Zoroastrians. In 1993, Major-General Julian Peter was the first Christian to be appointed at the command position while Hercharn Singh became the first Sikh to be commissioned in the army. Between 1947 and 2000, a policy of restricting Hinduism in Pakistan, Hindus prior enlisting in the Pakistan Army was in practice until the policy was reversed by the federal government. In 2006, army recruiters began recruiting Hindus into the army and people of all faith or no faith can be promoted to any rank or commanding position in the army.


Equipment

The equipment and weapon system of Pakistan Army is developed and manufactured by the Defense industry of Pakistan, local weapons industry and modern arms have been imported from China, Turkey,
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
,
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, France and other countries in the European Union. The Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT), Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF), National Radio & Telecommunication Corporation, National Radio and Telecommunication Corporation (NRTC) and the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) are the major defense contractors for the Army. The industrial concern GIDS has also emerged as a major manufacturer of drones and other defence equipment. The Heavy Industries Taxila designs and manufactured main battle tanks (MBT) in cooperation with the China and Ukraine, while the fire arms and standard rifles for the army are licensed manufactured by the Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF). The Chinese cooperation and further assistance with the Pakistan Army is vital in designing, vehicular construction, and material manufacturing of the main battle tanks. The standard rifle for the army is the Germany, German designed and Pakistan Ordnance Factories, POF manufactured Heckler & Koch G3, Koch G3P4. The defense funding for the army was preferential, which was described as the "lion's share", however, in light of China–Pakistan Economic Corridor, CPEC's security demanding to secure the seaborne borders, the army financial planners significantly lowered its share in a view of strengthening the under-funded Pakistan Navy, Pakistan navy.


Uniforms

From 1947 to 1971, the Army Service Uniform, army service uniform of the Pakistan Army closely resembled to the British Army uniform, army uniform of the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
, but the uniform changed in preference of Sherwani. The army service uniform consists of a light khaki (tan) coloured long-sleeved shirt with matching trousers. It is accompanied by beret or peaked cap depending on the regiment the soldier belongs to. Organizational headwear, sashes, belts, spats, medals, lanyards, and other achievements are added for ceremonial duties. Unlike other countries in South Asia, Pakistan army officer uniforms don't include a aiguillette, rather it is used mostly by Aide-de-camp, aid-de-camps. Senior officers wear a greenish-khaki stand-and-fall collared tunic, called the Sherwani, with two front pockets, cap of a synthetic material, trousers with two pockets. In the 1970s, the Ministry of Defence (Pakistan), Ministry of Defense introduced the first camouflage pattern in the Army Combat Uniform, army combat uniform, resembling the British-styled Disruptive Pattern Material, DPM but this was changed in 1990 in favor of adopting the U.S. Woodland which continued until 2010. In winter front such as in the Siachen and near the Wakhan Corridor, the Pakistan Army personnel wears the heavy winter all white military gear. As of 2011, the camouflage pattern of the brown and black Battle Dress Uniform, BDU was issued and is worn by the officers and the army troops in their times of deployments. The Pakistan Army has introduced arid camouflage patterns in uniform and resized qualification badges which are now service ribbons and no longer worn along with the ranks are now embroidered and are on the chest. The name is badged on the right pocket and the left pocket displays achievement badges by Pakistan Army. Flag of Pakistan is placed over the black embroidered formation sign on the left arm and class course insignias are put up for the Goldish uniform, decorations and awards and the ranks.


Components and structure


Army components and branches

Since its organization that commenced in 1947, the army's functionality is broadly maintained in two main branches: Combat Arms and Administrative Services. From 1947 to 1971, the Pakistan Army had responsibility of maintaining the British-built List of forts in Pakistan, Forts, till the new and modern garrisons were built in post 1971, and performs the non-combat duties such as engineering and construction. Currently, the Army's combat services are kept in active-duty personnel and reservists that operate as members of either Pakistan Army Reserve, Reserves, the
National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...
and the paramilitary
Civil Armed Forces The Civil Armed Forces (CAF) are a group of nine paramilitary and gendarmerie organisations, separate and distinct from the regular Pakistan Armed Forces. They are responsible for maintaining internal security, helping law enforcement agencie ...
. The latter includes the
Frontier Corps The Frontier Corps (, reporting name: FC) are a group of four paramilitary forces of Pakistan, operating in the provinces of Balochistan (Pakistan), Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, to maintain law and order while overseeing the country's b ...
and the Pakistan Rangers, which often perform military police duties for the provincial governments in Pakistan to help control and manage the law and control situation. The two main branches of the army, Combat Arms and Administrative Services, also consist of several branches and functional areas that include the Army ranks and insignia of Pakistan, army officers, Junior commissioned officer, junior commissioned (or Warrant officer (United States), warrant officers), and the enlisted personnel who are classified from their branches in their uniforms and berets. In Pakistan Army, the careers are not restricted to military officials but are extended to civilian personnel and contractors who can progress in administrative branches of the army.


Command structure

The reorganization of the position standing army in 2008, the Pakistan Army now operates six tactical commands, each commanded by the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, GOC-in-C, with a holding three-star rank: Lieutenant-General. Each of the six tactical commands directly reports to the office of Chief of Army Staff, operating directly at the Army GHQ. Each command consists of two or more Corps– an army field formation responsible for Exclusion zone, zone within a command theater. There are nine active Corps in the Pakistan Army, composing of mixed infantry, mechanized, armored, artillery divisions, while the Pakistan Army Air Defence Corps, Air Defense, Pakistan Army Aviation Corps, Aviation, and the Pakistan Army Aviation Corps, Aviation and Pakistan Army Special Forces, Special Forces are organized and maintained in the separate level of their commands. Established and organized in March 2000, the Army Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan), Army Strategic Forces Command is exercise its authority for responsible training in Nuclear safety, safety, weapons deployments, and activation of the Pakistani missile research and development program, atomic missile systems.


Combat maneuvering organizations

In events involving the large and massive foreign invasion by the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
charging towards the Pakistan-side Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab sector, the Pakistan Army maintains the "Pakistan Army Reserves" as a strategic Military reserve force, reserve component for conducting the offense and defense measures against the advancing enemy.


Infantry branch

Since its establishment in 1947, the Pakistan Army has traditionally followed the British Armed Forces, British regimental system and culture, and currently there are six organized
infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
regiments. In the infantry branch, there are originally six regiments are in fact the administrative military organization that are not combat field formation, and the size of the regiments are vary as their rotation and deployments including Military Aid to the Civil Authorities, assisting the Federal government of Pakistan, federal government in Pakistan Administrative Service, civic administration. In each of original six regiments, there are multiple battalions that are associated together to form an infantry regiment and such battalions do not fight together as one formation as they are all deployed over various formations in shape of being part of the brigade combat team (under a Brigadier (United Kingdom), Brigadier), Division (military), division, or a being part of much larger corps. After the independence from the Great Britain in 1947, the Pakistan Army begin to follow the U.S. Army's standing formation of their Infantry Branch (United States), Infantry Branch, having the infantry battalion serving for a time period under a different command zone before being deployed to another command zone, usually in another sector or terrain when its tenure is over.


Special operations forces

The Pakistan Army has a division dedicated towards conducting the Unconventional warfare, unconventional and asymmetric warfare operations, established with the guidance provided by the
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the primary Land warfare, land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of th ...
in 1956. This competitive special operation force is known as the Special Services Group (Army SSG, distinguishing the Special Service Group (Navy), Navy SSG), and is assembled in eight battalions, commanded by the Lieutenant-Colonel, with addition of three Company (military unit), companies commanded by the Major (rank), Major or a Captain (army), Captain, depending on the availability. The special operation forces training school is located in Cherat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Each battalion in the Pakistan Army Special Forces is specifically trained for a specific type of operation, and each battalion is a specialist in their nature of conducting the operation. Due to their distinctive service headgear, the Army SSG is colloquially known as the Maroon Berets. In addition to the Army Special Service Group (SSG), the Pakistan Army has trained specialized Pakistan Rangers, Ranger units in counter-terrorism tactics. These Rangers are equipped to handle complex counter-terrorism operations involving civilian hostages and assist the Sindh and Punjab governments in maintaining law and order.


Military philosophy


Combat doctrine (1947–2007)

In 1947, the Pakistan Army's war strategists developed a combat doctrine which was called "Riposte, The Riposte", which featured a strategy of "offensive-defense". In 1989, the first and official implementation of this strategy was refined and featured in the major military exercise, Exercise Zarb–e–Momin, Exercise Zab-e-Momin, organized under Lt-Gen. Hamid Gul– this combat doctrine was fully focused in engaging towards its primary adversary,
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
. In 1989–99, the JS HQ (Pakistan), JS HQ, working with the Army GHQ to identify several key factors considering the large conventional attacks from the better equipped and numerically advantage adversary, the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
, derived the combat doctrine to assess the vulnerability of Pakistan where its vast majority of Population of Pakistan, population centers as well as political and military targets lies closer to the Indo-Pakistani border, international border with
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. The national security strategists explored the controversial idea of strategic depth in form of fomenting friendly foreign relations with
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
and Iran while India substantially enhancing its offensive capabilities designed in its doctrine, the Cold Start (military doctrine), Cold Start Doctrine. Due to the numerical advantage of
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
over its smaller adversary, the Pakistan Army, the Pakistani national security analysts noted that any counterattack on advancing Indian Army would be very tricky and miscalculated – the ideal response of countering the attacks from the Indian ground forces would be operationalizing the Tactical ballistic missile, battle-ranged Hatf-I, Hatf-IA/Hatf-IB missiles. In times of national emergency, the Pakistan Army Reserves, supported by the
National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...
and
Civil Armed Forces The Civil Armed Forces (CAF) are a group of nine paramilitary and gendarmerie organisations, separate and distinct from the regular Pakistan Armed Forces. They are responsible for maintaining internal security, helping law enforcement agencie ...
, would likely be deployed to reinforce defensive positions and fortifications. However, after the orders are authorized the Corps in both nation's will take between 24 and 72 hours to completely mobilize their combat assets. Therefore, both nation's armies will be evenly matched in the first 24 hours since the Pakistani units have to travel a shorter distance to their forward positions. Pakistan's military doctrine emphasizes a proactive defense, also referred to as "offensive-defense". This strategy prioritizes seizing the initiative in a conflict and launching limited counteroffensives to preempt potential enemy advances. Proponents of Pakistan's "offensive-defense" doctrine argue that it offers several advantages. One key benefit is the potential to disrupt an enemy's offensive plans, forcing them to shift focus from their initial attack to defending their own territory. This could place Pakistan in a more favorable position by dictating the terms of engagement on the battlefield. The strategic calculations by Pakistan Army's war strategists hope that the Pakistan Army's soldiers would keep the Indian Army engaged in fighting on the Indian territory, therefore the collateral damage being suffered by the Indian Army will be higher. Pakistani planners also estimate that since Indian forces will not be able to reach their maximum strength near the border for another 48–72 hours, Pakistan might have parity or numerical superiority against India. An important aspect in "offensive-defense" doctrine was to seize sizable Indian territory which gives Pakistan an issue to negotiate with India in the aftermath of a possible ceasefire brought about by the international pressure after 3–4 weeks of fighting. Due to fortification of Line of Control, LoC in Kashmir and difficult terrains in Northern Punjab, the Army created the #Combat maneuvering organizations, Pakistan Army Reserves in the 1990s that is concentrated in the desert terrain of
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
-Rajasthan sector, The Army Reserve South of the #Combat maneuvering organizations, Pakistan Army Reserves is grouped in several powerful field-level corps and designed to provide defensive maneuvers in case of war with the Indian Army.


Threat Matrix (2010 – present)

After the failure of the "Offensive-defense" in 1999, the national security institutions engaged in critical thinking to evaluate new doctrine that would provide a comprehensive grand strategy against the infiltrating enemy forces, and development began 2010–11 for the new combat doctrine. In 2013, the new combat doctrine, the Threat Matrix (database), Threat Matrix, was unveiled by the Inter-Services Public Relations, ISPR, that was the first time in its history that the army's national security analysts realized that Pakistan faces a real threat from within, a threat that is concentrated in areas along western borders. The Threat Matrix doctrine analyze the military's comprehensive operational priorities and goes beyond in comprehensively describing both existential and non-existential threats to the country. Based on that strategy in 2013, the Pakistani military organized a four-tier joint military exercise, code-named: Exercise Azm-e-Nau, in which the aim was to update the military's "readiness strategy for dealing with the complex security threat environment." The objective of such exercises is to assess tactics, procedures, and techniques, and explore joint operations strategies involving all three branches of the military: the Army, Pakistan Air Force, Air Force, and Pakistan Navy, Navy. In successive years, the Pakistani military combined all the branch-level exercises into joint warfare exercises, in which all four branches now participate, regardless of the terrain, platforms, and control of command.


Education and training


Schooling, teachings, and institutions

The Pakistan Army offers wide range of extensive and lucrative careers in the military to young high school graduates and the college degree holders upon enlistment, and Pakistan Army operates the large number of training schools in all over the country. The overall directions and management of the Army Public Schools & Colleges System, army training schools are supervised and controlled by the policies devised by the Pakistan Army Education Corps, Education Corps, and philosophy on instructions in army schools involves in modern education with combat training. At the time of its establishment of the Pakistan Army in 1947, the Command and Staff College in Quetta was inherited to Pakistan, and is the oldest college established during the British Raj, colonial period in British Indian Empire, India in 1905 in India, 1905. The British Army ranks, British officers in the Pakistan Army had to established the wide range of schools to provide education and to train the army personnel in order to raise the dedicated and professional army. The wide range of military officers in the Pakistani military were sent to attend the staff colleges in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
,
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
, Australia, and Canada who were trained and excelled in courses in armory, infantry, artillery, and ordnance in 1950–1961. The
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
eventually took over the overall training programs in the Pakistan Army under the International Military Education and Training (IMET) but the U.S. coordination with Pakistan varied along with the vicissitudes of the Pakistan–United States military relations, military relations between Pakistan–United States relations, two countries. In the 1980s, the army had sent ~200 army officers abroad annually, two-thirds actually decided to attend schooling in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
but the cessation of the United States' aid to Pakistan led the suspension of the International Military Education and Training, IMET, leading Pakistani military officers to choose the schooling in the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
. After the September 11 attacks, terrorist attacks in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
in 2001, the International Military Education and Training, IMET cooperation was again activated with army officers begin attending the schooling in the United States but the training program was again suspended in 2018 by the First presidency of Donald Trump, Trump administration, leveling accusations on Allegations of support system in Pakistan for Osama bin Laden, supporting armed Jihadi groups in
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
. During the reconstruction and reorganization of the armed forces in the 1970s, the army established more training schools as below: Sources
Army Schools
an

of Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army's training schools are not restricted to the department of the army only but inter-services officers and personnel have been trained and educated as part of the interdepartmental cooperation. The Pakistan Army takes responsibility of providing the military training and education to
Pakistan Marines The Pakistan Marines (Urdu: ) or simply as Pak Marines, is an expeditionary and amphibious warfare uniform service branch within the Pakistan Navy, consisting of the naval officers and other personnel to perform their duties within the Marine ...
at their School of Infantry and Tactics, and military officers in other branches have attended and qualified Psc (military), psc from the Command and Staff College in Quetta. Officers holding the ranks of Captain (army), captains, Major (rank), majors, Lieutenant (naval), lieutenants and Lieutenant-Commander, lieutenant-commanders in marines are usually invited to attend the courses at the Command and Staff College in Quetta to be qualified as Psc (military), psc. Established in 1971, the National Defence University, Islamabad, National Defense University (NDU) in Islamabad is the senior and higher education learning institution that provides the advance critical thinking level and research-based Military strategy, strategy level education to the senior military officers in the Pakistani military. The National Defence University, Islamabad, NDU in Islamabad is a significant institution of higher learning in understanding the institutional norms of military tutelage in Pakistan because it constitutes the "highest learning platform where the military leadership comes together for common instruction", according to thesis written by Pakistani author Aqil Shah. Without securing their graduation from their master's program, no officer in the Pakistani military can be promoted as general in the army or air force, or admiral in the navy as it is a prerequisite for their promotion to become a senior member at the
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC), (); is an administrative body of senior high-ranking uniformed military leaders of the unified Pakistan Armed Forces who advises the civilian government of Pakistan, National Security Council, Defen ...
. Besides, the platform provided at the National Defence University, Islamabad, NDU in Islamabad represents a radical shift from the emphasis on operational and staff functions and the level of ranks are imposed as a qualification to attend the Master's degree, master's program at the National Defence University, Islamabad, NDU, usually Brigadier (United Kingdom), brigadiers, Air Commodore, air commodores, and Commodore (rank), commodores, are invited to given admission in a broad range of strategic, political, social, and economic factors as these factors affect the country's national security. In this sense, the National Defence University, Islamabad, NDU becomes the critical thinking institution as its constitutes active-duty senior military officers corps' baptism into a shared ideological framework about the military's appropriate role, status, and behavior in relation to state and society, and shared values affect how these officers perceive and respond to civilian governmental decisions, policies, and political crises. Admissions to the army's military engineering colleges and National Defence University, Islamabad, NDU is not restricted to military officials but the civilians can also attend and graduate from the NDU, allowing the civilians to explore the broader aspects of national security. Established in 1991, the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) has now absorbed and amalgamated the existing military colleges of engineering, signals, aeronautical, medical and is a counterpart institution in Science and engineering, science and technology to that of the National Defence University, Islamabad, National Defense University (NDU) in Islamabad. The foreign military officials and students, including from the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, have attended the Command and Staff College in Quetta and the National Defence University, Islamabad, National Defense University (NDU) in Islamabad but the American instructors and observers have penned critical analysis by reporting the curriculum offered by the Command and Staff College in Quetta to be narrow focus and failure to encourage speculative thinking or to give adequate attention to less glamorous subjects, such as logistics.


Civil engineering and construction

Since the 1970s, the Pakistan Army's engineering formations have been involved in civil engineering of the important landmarks in the country, hydroelectricity, Electricity generation, power generation, Dams in Pakistan, dams, and National Highways of Pakistan, national freeways. The Pakistan Army builds major civil engineering landmarks in the country, including the Karakoram Highway, Skardu Airport, and the Nuclear test site, national security sites in Kahuta. The Frontier Works Organization of the army, has built several infrastructures with the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers, Corps of Engineers all over the country, and has built the communications lines in Northern Pakistan through its Special Communications Organization (SCO). The Corps of Engineers are the major civil engineering contractor and engineering consultant employed by the Government of Pakistan, federal government, advising on construction management and on to improving the efficiency of construction measures in times of natural calamities. The Pakistan Army's landmark civil engineering projects included the Lyari Expressway in Karachi, Makran Coastal Highway in Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan and the Khanpur Dam in
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a province of Pakistan. Located in the northwestern region of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the fourth largest province of Paki ...
. Besides their infrastructure projects in Pakistan, the Pakistan Army has built several infrastructures projects in other parts of the world as part their deployment in United Nation's peacekeeping missions.


UN peacekeeping missions

In the wake of the new world power equilibrium, a more complex security environment has emerged. It's characterized by growing national power politics. * UN Operation in Congo (ONUC) 1960–1964 * UN Security Force in New Guinea, West Irian (UNSF) 1962–1963 (14 Punjab Regiment) * UN Yemen Observer Mission Yemen (UNYOM) 1963–1964 * UN Transition Assistance Group in Namibia (UNTAG) 1989–1990 * UN Iraq–Kuwait Observer Mission (UNIKOM) 1991–2003 * UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) 1993–1996 * UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) 1992–1993 * UN Operations in Somalia (UNOSOM) 1992–1995 * UN Protection Forces in Bosnia (UNPROFOR) 1992–1995 * UN Observer Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) 1993–1996 * UN Verification Mission in Angola (UNAVEM III) 1995–1997 * UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia (UNTAES) 1996–1997 * UN Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP) 1996–2002 * UN Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) 2001–2005 * UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) 1999-to-date * UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) 1999-to-date * The total number of Pakistani troops serving in peacekeeping missions is 7,533, as of August 2015, which is one of the biggest number among rest of participants.


Involvement in Pakistani society

The Pakistan Army has played an integral part in the civil society of Pakistan, almost since its inception. In 1996, General Jehangir Karamat described Pakistan armed forces' relations with the society: In times of national calamities and natural disasters, including the devastating 2005 Kashmir earthquake, earthquake in 2005 or the 2010 Pakistan floods, great floods in 2010, the army engineering corps, medical, logistical personnel, and other armed forces services have played a major role in Rehabilitation counseling, area rehabilitation and reconstruction of cities and towns while distributing the relief goods and military rations to the affected civilians. Since 1948, the army has been involved in providing power generation to affected areas, building dams, and construction of towns and cities, and conducting rescue operations for evacuations of general public and animals from endangerment. To coordinate and manage the proper relief operations, reconstructions, and rehabilitation, the Government of Pakistan, federal government Military Aid to the Civil Authorities, appoints the active-duty officers, as an external billets appointments, to lead federal agencies such as the National Disaster Management Authority (Pakistan), NDMA. Besides relief activities in the country, the Pakistan Army has also engaged in other parts of the world such as coordinating and leading the relief efforts in Indonesia,
Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...
, and Sri Lanka after these countries were affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, underwater earthquake that resulted in tsunami in 2004. Stephen P. Cohen in his article, Pakistan: Army, Society and Security writes:


Corporate and business activities

The Pakistan Army's business interests, managed through foundations like the Fauji Foundation, have been a subject of international scrutiny. News agencies and investigations by financial regulators allege the military controls a vast network of business enterprises and conglomerates, with estimates suggesting a total revenue of US$20 billion in 2007-2008. The Defence Housing Authority, Defence Housing Authority (DHA) and Army Welfare Trust, Askari Real Estate are prominent examples of the Pakistan Army's large-scale real estate ventures. However, critics point out that none of the 46 housing schemes directly built by the armed forces cater to ordinary soldiers, civilian officers or other army personnel. The Fauji Foundation () is a Pakistani conglomerate publicly traded on the Pakistan Stock Exchange (PSX). It manufactures and sells processed meat, and operates stud and dairy farms primarily for the military's use. The foundation also has subsidiaries that contribute to the civilian economy through various enterprises, including bakeries, security services and banking. Its factories produce a wide range of goods, including sugar and fertilizer.


Awards and honours


Wartime Gallantry Awards


Nishan-e-Haider

In Pakistan Military Awards, military awards hierarchy, the Nishan-e-Haider, Nishan-e-Haidar () is the highest and most prestigious honour awarded posthumously for bravery and actions of valor in event of war. The honour is a namesake of Ali and the recipients receiving this honorary title as a sign of respect: ''Shaheed'' meaning ''martyr''. Since 1947–2019, there has been ten Pakistani military officers and personnel who have honoured with this prestigious medal— out of which, nine have been officers and soldiers in the Pakistan Army, bestowed to those who engaged in wars with India.


Recipient of the foreign awards

The Pakistan Army has received foreign awards for its services to other nations. Notably, two army pilots from the Pakistan Army Aviation Corps, Aviation Corps were honored for a daring rescue operation. Lt-Col. Rashiduhlla Beg and Lt-Col. Khalid Amir were awarded the Golden Order for Services by the Slovenian President in the capital, Ljubljana, for rescuing Slovenian mountaineer Tomaz Humar, who was stranded on the 8,125-meter (26,657 ft) peak Nanga Parbat. In addition, there are numbers of the army general officers have been honoured multiple times with the United States's Legion of Merit for cooperation and strengthening bilateral ties with the United States 1980s–2015. In 2010, the Pakistan Army was awarded with a gold medal at the Exercise Cambrian Patrol held in Wales in the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
.


Sports

The Army offers programs in many sports including boxing, field hockey, cricket, swimming, table tennis, karate, basketball, soccer, and other sports. The Army basketball program regularly provides the Pakistan national basketball team with players.Basketball team named for 11th South Asian Games
http://www.nation.com.pk. Retrieved 25 March 2012.


See also

* National Guard (Pakistan) *
Civil Armed Forces The Civil Armed Forces (CAF) are a group of nine paramilitary and gendarmerie organisations, separate and distinct from the regular Pakistan Armed Forces. They are responsible for maintaining internal security, helping law enforcement agencie ...
* Comparative military ranks * Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition * List of serving generals of the Pakistan Army * Military history of Pakistan * ''Pakistan Army Retribution'' (video game) * Pakistan Military Academy * Special Service Group (SSG) * Structure of the Pakistan Army


References


Further reading

* Cloughley, Brian. ''A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections'' (4th ed. 2014). * * Ayub, Muhammad (2005). ''An army, Its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999''. RoseDog Books. . * (A Bengali-language book about the history of Pakistan Army) *Paul Staniland, Adnan Naseemullah & Ahsan Butt (2020) "Pakistan's military elite." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'', 43:1, 74-103


External links

* {{Authority control Pakistan Army, Military of Pakistan, * 1947 establishments in Pakistan Military units and formations established in 1947 Government of Pakistan