Negro Rebellion

The War of 1912 (), also known as the Little Race War, the Negro Rebellion, or The Twelve, was a series of protests and uprisings in 1912 in Cuba, which saw conflict between Afro-Cuban rebels and the armed forces of Cuba. It took place mainly in the eastern region of the island, where most Afro-Cubans were employed. After weeks of fighting, which involved massacres of Afro-Cubans by the Cuban National Army led by General and a U.S. military intervention to protect American companies, the rebellion was put down. The leaders of the Afro-Cuban rebels, and Pedro Ivonnet, were killed during the rebellion and their political movement, The Independent Party of Color, was dissolved. Between 3,000 and 6,000 people were killed in the rebellion.

Background

Social conditions

Conditions in Cuba were poor for the black inhabitants, most of whom worked in the sugarcane industry. Evaristo Estenoz began a movement in 1895 to better these conditions, during the war for independence from Spain. Veterans of that war, primarily the officers, organized the Independent Party of Color in 1908. Under the leadership of Estenoz, the party quickly gained the support of a large number of Afro-Cubans in opposition to Cuban President José Miguel Gómez. Gómez ordered the party disbanded under the Morúa law, which outlawed political parties based on race. By 1912 the Independent Party of Color had regrouped to stage another rebellion.

US Marines in Cuba

In early 1912, the United States government sent a detachment of 688 US Marines, officers and enlisted men, to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base because Estenoz and his followers were preparing a rebellion. Though they were lightly armed, the rebels numbered several hundred men, mainly peasants.

History

Beginning

On 20 May, Estenoz and his men confronted the Cuban Army. Fighting took place mainly in Oriente Province, where most African Cubans lived, but there were also a few minor outbreaks of violence in the west, particularly in Las Villas Province. Initially, the rebels were successful in engaging the Cuban forces, which included soldiers and militia. On 23 May, President Gómez requested aid from U.S. President William H. Taft, who sent additional marines. The first reinforcements arrived on 28 May, landing at Deer Point, Guantanamo Bay, to link up with Major Thorpe's battalion. Colonel Lincoln Karmany was in command of this new force, designated the 1st Provisional Regiment of Marines. It numbered 32 officers and 777 enlisted men.

Cuban official response

The Cuban government and press responded with a very racist demonization of the rebels. The Cuban President called on the Cuban people to fight for "civilization" against "ferocious savagery". The President also invoked the image of a "raped teacher" which turned out to be from a fake news story from a conservative newspaper. The conservative newspaper ''"El Dia"'' argued that Cuba should copy Jim Crow Laws in the United States where "blacks are mistreated and society is segregated" concluding that "dominated races do submit". Afro-Cuban politicians became worried and angered over the escalation of racism during the rebellion. The racial demagoguery angered Juan Gualberto Gomez, former Cuban independence leader, so much that he published a manifesto condemning it.

Arrival of United States forces

The 2nd Provisional Regiment of Marines with 1,292 officers and men under Colonel James E. Mahoney was also en route. Most arrived at Guantanamo Bay on 7 June, while one battalion landed at Havana

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