Native Hawaiians

Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians; , , , and ) are the Indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands.

Hawaiʻi was settled at least 800 years ago by Polynesians who sailed from the Society Islands. The settlers gradually became detached from their homeland and developed a distinct Hawaiian culture and identity in their new home. They created new religious and cultural structures, in response to their new circumstances and to pass knowledge from one generation to the next. Hence, the Hawaiian religion focuses on ways to live and relate to the land and instills a sense of community.

The Hawaiian Kingdom was formed in 1795, when Kamehameha the Great, of the then-independent island of Hawaiʻi, conquered the independent islands of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi to form the kingdom. In 1810, Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the Kingdom, the last inhabited islands to do so. The Kingdom received many immigrants from the United States and Asia. The Hawaiian sovereignty movement seeks autonomy or independence for Hawaiʻi.

In the 2010 U.S. census, people with Native Hawaiian ancestry were reported to be residents in all 50 of the U.S. states, as well as Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. Within the U.S. in 2010, 540,013 residents reported Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ancestry alone, of which 135,422 lived in Hawaii. In the United States overall, 1.2 million people identified as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, either alone or in combination with one or more other races. The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander population was one of the fastest-growing groups between 2000 and 2010.

History

The history of ''Kānaka Maoli'', like the history of Hawaii, is commonly broken into four major periods:
* the pre-unification period (before )
* the unified monarchy and republic period ( to 1898)
* the U.S. territorial period (1898 to 1959)
* the U.S. statehood period (1959 to present)

Origins

One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi in the 3rd century from the Marquesas by travelling in groups of waka, and were followed by Tahitians in AD 1300, who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands. Evidence for Tahitian conquest include the legends of Hawaiiloa and the navigator-priest Paao, who is said to have made a voyage between Hawaiʻi and the island of "Kahiki" (Tahiti) and introduced many customs. Early historians, such as Abraham Fornander and Martha Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, but later historians, such as Patrick Kirch, do not mention it. King Kalākaua claimed that Paao was from Sāmoa.

Some writers claim that earlier settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians, although similar stories exist throughout Polynesia.

Demographics

At the time of Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000. This was the peak of the Native Hawaiian population. During the first century after contact, ''Kānaka Maoli'' were nearly wiped out by diseases brought by immigrants and visitors. ''Kānaka Maoli'' had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, among others. These diseases were similarly catastrophic to indigenous populations in the Americas.

The current 293,000 include dual lineage Native Hawaiian and mixed lineage/multi-racial people. This was the highest number of any ''Kānaka Maoli'' living on the island until 2014, a period of almost 226 years. This long spread was marked by an initial die-off of 1-in-17, which would gradually increase to almost 8–10 dying from contact to the low point in 1950.

The 1900 U.S. census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial Native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U.S. census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, showing a steady growth trend over the century.

Diaspora

Some Hawaiians left the islands during the period of the Hawaiian Kingdom. For example, Harry Maitey became the first Hawaiian in Prussia.

Also noteworthy as leaving the Hawaiian kingdom was Palawai, Lānaʻi-born Native Hawaiian Kiha Kaʻawa who was adopted as a young man by Sandwich Islands Mormon Missionary President George Nebeker and emigrated with King Lunalilo permission to the mainland US, thus making Kiha Kaʻawa (adopted Nebeker) the first native Hawaiian (Kanaka Maoli) to become a US citizen in 1873 prior to Hawaiʻi's annexation. Kiha Ka’awa stayed in the US until his death December 26th 1931.

The Native Hawaiian population has increased outside the state of Hawaiʻi, with states such as California and Washington experiencing dramatic increases in total population. Due to a notable Hawaiian presence in Las Vegas, the city is sometimes called the "Ninth Island" in reference to the eight islands of Hawaiʻi.

Culture and arts

Several cultural preservation societies and organizations were established. The largest is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, established in 1889 and designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. The museum houses the largest collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, documents, and other information. The museum has links with major colleges and universities throughout the world to facilitate research.

The Polynesian Voyaging Society reignited interest in Polynesian sailing techniques, both in ship construction and in instrument-free navigation. The Society built multiple double-hulled canoes, beginning with '' Hōkūlea'' and followed by ''Makaliʻi,'' ''Alingano Maisu,'' and ''Mo‘okiha O Pi‘ilani.'' The canoes and their worldwide voyages contributed to the renewal and appreciation of Hawaiian culture.

Religion and society

Native Hawaiian culture grew from their Polynesian roots, creating a local religion and cultural practices. This new worship centered on the ideas of land (''ʻāina'') and family (''ʻohana''). Land became a sacred part of life and family. Hawaiian religion is polytheistic, but mostly focuses on the gods Wākea and Papahānaumoku, the mother and father of the Hawaiian islands. Their stillborn child formed the deep roots of Hawaii, and whose second child, Hāloa, is the god from whom all Hawaiians originate.

Hawaiian culture is caste-oriented, with specific roles based on social standing. Caste roles are reflected in how land was controlled.

Land tenure

Each island was divided into ''moku'', which were given to people of high standing and kept within the family. Each ''moku'' was split into smaller ''ahupuaʻa'', each of which extended from the sea to the top of the nearest mountain. This was to ensure that each ''ahupuaʻa'' provided all necessary resources for survival, including hardwoods and food sources. Each ''ahupuaʻa'' was managed by managers, who were charged by the island chief to collect tributes from the residents. Splits of the ''ahupuaʻa'' were based on the level of tribute. The major subdivisions were ''ʻIli''. Each ''ʻIli'' gave a tribute to the chief of the ''ahupuaʻa'' and another to the island chief. In contrast to the European system of feudalism, Hawaiian peasants were never bound to the land and were free to move as they chose.

''Kānaka Maoli'' refer to themselves as '' kamaʻāina'', a word meaning "people of the land", because of their connection to and stewardship of the land. It was also part of the spiritual belief system that attributes their origin to the land itself. This is reinforced by the cultivation of taro, a plant that is said to be the manifestation of Hāloa. The represents the deep roots that tether Hawaiians to the islands, as well as symbolizing the branching networks that Hawaiian people created.

Hula

Hula is one of Hawaiʻi’s best-known indigenous artforms. Traditionally, hula was a ritualistic dance performed to honor the gods and goddesses. Hula is typically categorized as either ''Hula Kahiko'' or ''Hula ʻAuana''. Each hula tells a story via its movements and gestures.

''Hula Kahiko'' is a traditional style. Its interpretive dance is known for its grace and romantic feel. Dances are accompanied by percussion instruments and traditional chanting. The traditional instruments include the '' pahu hula'', ''kilu'' or ''puniu'', '' ipu'', ''hano'' or ''ohe hano ihu'', ''ka'', ''pu'', ''oeoe'', ''pahupahu kaekeeke'', ''hokio'', and ''wi''. Dancers add to the effect using ''uli'', ''puili'', ''iliili'', ''papahehi'', and ''kalaau''.

''Hula ʻAuana'' was influenced by later Western factors. It is accompanied by non-traditional musical instruments and colorful outfits. It became popularized with tourists and it is this form that is most widely practiced beyond the islands. ʻUkuleles and guitars are common.

Holidays

The Hawaiian people celebrate traditions and holidays. The most popular form of celebration in Hawaiʻi is the Lūʻau. A lūʻau is a traditional Hawaiian banquet, commonly featuring foods such as ''poi'', ''poke'', ''lomi-lomi'' salmon, ''kālua'' pig, '' haupia'', and entertainment such as ʻukulele music and hula.

One of the most important holidays is Prince Kūhiō Day. Celebrated every year since 1949 on his birthday (March 26), the holiday honors Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, a Congressman who succeeded in helping Native Hawaiian families become landowners. It is celebrated with canoe races and lūʻaus across the islands. Every June 11 ''Kānaka Maoli'' celebrate King Kamehameha day. Kamehameha I was the king who unified the islands and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. He was known as a fearless warrior, wise diplomat, and the most respected leader in the history of the Hawaiian monarchy. The holiday is celebrated with parades and lei draping ceremonies, where ''Kānaka Maoli'' bring '' lei'' (flower necklaces) to King Kamehameha statues located across the islands and drape them from his cast bronze arms and neck to honor his contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.

Hawaiian cultural revival

Native Hawaiian culture underwent a renaissance beginning in the 1970s. It was in part triggered by the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention, held 200 years after the arrival of Captain Cook. At the convention, state government committed itself to the study and preservation of Hawaiian culture, history, and language.

Hawaiian culture was introduced into Hawaiʻi's public schools, teaching Hawaiian art, lifestyle, geography, hula, and Hawaiian language. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to teach Hawaiian history to all their students.

Many aspects of Hawaiian culture were commercialized to appeal to visitors from around the world. This includes hula, use of the word "Aloha", ''lei'', and the assimilation of Hawaiian culture into non-native lifestyles. This has provided significant financial support for cultural practices, while emphasizing aspects that have popular appeal over those that respect tradition.

Statutes and charter amendments were passed acknowledging a policy of preference for Hawaiian place and street names. For example, with the closure of Barbers Point Naval Air Station in the 1990s, the region formerly occupied by the base was renamed Kalaeloa.

Activism

While Native Hawaiian protest has a long history, beginning just after the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, many notable protests came during or after the Hawaiian cultural revival. These include the Kalama Valley protests, the Waiāhole-Waikāne struggle, the Kahoʻolawe island protests, and protests over the presence and management of astronomical observatories atop Hawaiʻi's mountains, most notably the Thirty Meter Telescope protests.

Hawaiian language

Hawaiian Traditional Language

The Hawaiian language (or ''ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi'') was once the language of native Hawaiian people; today, ''Kānaka Maoli'' predominantly speak English. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English "be the only medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools". This law excluded the Hawaiian language from schools. In spite of this, some ''Kānaka Maoli'' (as well as non-''Kānaka Maoli'') learned ''ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi''. As with other Hawaiʻi locals, ''Kānaka Maoli'' typically speak Hawaiian Creole English (referred to locally as Pidgin) in daily life. Pidgin is a creole that developed during the plantation era in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, mixing words and diction from the various ethnic groups living in Hawaiʻi then.

''ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi'' later became an official language of the State of Hawaiʻi, alongside English. The state enacted a program of cultural preservation in 1978. Programs included Hawaiian language immersion schools, and a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Ever since, Hawaiian language fluency has climbed among all races.

In 2006, the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo established a masters program in Hawaiian, and in 2006, a Ph.D. program. It was the first doctoral program established for the study of any pre-contact language in the United States.

Hawaiian is the primary language of the residents of Niʻihau.

Hawaiʻi Sign Language

Alongside ''ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi'', some ''Kānaka Maoli'' spoke the little studied Hawaiʻi Sign Language.

Education

In Hawaiʻi, the public school system is operated by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Education rather than local school districts. Under the administration of Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano from 1994 to 2002, the state's educational system established Hawaiian language immersion schools. In these schools, all courses are taught in the Hawaiian language and incorporate Hawaiian subject matter. These schools are not exclusive to native Hawaiians.

''Kānaka Maoli'' are eligible for an education from Kamehameha Schools (KS), established through the last will and testament of Bernice Pauahi Bishop of the Kamehameha Dynasty. The largest and wealthiest private school system in the United States, KS was intended to benefit orphans and the needy, with preference given to ''Kānaka Maoli''. The schools educate thousands of children of native Hawaiian children ancestry and offers summer and off-campus programs not restricted by ancestry. KS practice of accepting primarily gifted students, has been controversial in the native Hawaiian community. Many families feel that gifted students could excel anywhere, and that the Hawaiian community would be better served by educating disadvantaged children to help them become responsible community contributors.

Many ''Kānaka Maoli'' attend public schools or other private schools.

Office of Hawaiian Affairs

Federal developments

United States annexation

In 1893, during the Hawaiian rebellions of 1887–1895 and after the ascension of Queen Liliʻuokalani to the Hawaiian Throne in 1891, Sanford Dole created the "Committee of Safety" overthrew the monarchy. This was in part due to the Queen's rejection of the 1887 Constitution, which severely limited her authority. This diminished traditional governance and installed a US-backed, plantation-led government. One reason for the overthrow was over Kalākaua's unwillingness to sign the amended Treaty of Reciprocity that would have damaged Hawaiian trade, and opened up part of Oʻahu for the Pearl Harbor military base.

The event was challenged by Grover Cleveland, but was eventually supported by President William McKinley in his Manifest Destiny plan, which harmed indigenous peoples in the continental United States and Hawaiʻi. The change left ''Kānaka Maoli'' as the only major indigenous group with no "nation-to-nation" negotiation status and without any degree of self determination.

Native American Programs Act

In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to include ''Kānaka Maoli''. This paved the way for ''Kānaka Maoli'' to become eligible for some federal assistance programs originally intended for continental Native Americans. Today, Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62 defines a Native Hawaiian as "an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778".

United States apology resolution

On November 23, 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103–150, also known as the Apology Resolution, which had previously passed Congress. This resolution "apologizes to ''Kānaka Maoli'' on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi".

Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009

In the early 2000s, the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill (Akaka bill), an attempt to recognize and form a Native Hawaiian government entity to negotiate with state and federal governments. The bill would establish, for the first time, a formal political and legal relationship between a Native Hawaiian entity and the US government. Proponents consider the legislation to be an acknowledgement and partial correction of past injustices. They included Hawaiʻi's Congressional delegation, as well as former Governor Linda Lingle. Opponents include the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, (who doubted the constitutionality of creating a race-based government), libertarian activists, (who challenged the accuracy of claims of injustice), and other Native Hawaiian sovereignty activists, (who claimed that the legislation would prevent complete independence from the United States).

A Ward Research poll commissioned in 2003 by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs reported that "Eighty-six percent of the 303 Hawaiian residents polled by Ward Research said 'yes.' Only 7 percent said 'no,' with 6 percent unsure ... Of the 301 non-Hawaiians polled, almost eight in 10 (78 percent) supported federal recognition, 16 percent opposed it, with 6 percent unsure." A Zogby International poll commissioned in 2009 by the Grassroot Institute of Hawaii indicated that a plurality (39%) of Hawaiʻi residents opposed it and that 76% indicated that they were unwilling to pay higher taxes to offset any resulting tax revenue loss due to the act.

The bill did not pass.

Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law

In 2005, with the support of U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye, federal funding through the Native Hawaiian Education Act created the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at UH Mānoa William S. Richardson School of Law. The program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law.

Ka Huli Ao focuses on research, scholarship, and community outreach. Ka Huli Ao maintains a social media presence and provides law students with summer fellowships. Law school graduates are eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships.

Department of Interior Self-Governance Proposal

In 2016, the Department of Interior (DOI), under the direction of Secretary Sally Jewell, started the process of recognizing the Hawaiians' right to self governance and the ability for nation-to-nation negotiation status and rights. This created opposition from the Hawaiian Sovereignty movement who believed that ''Kānaka Maoli'' should not have to navigate US structures to regain sovereignty and viewed the process as incomplete. The outcome ultimately allowed nation-to-nation relationships if ''Kānaka Maoli'' created their own government and sought that relationship. The government formation process was stopped by Justice Anthony Kennedy, using his earlier precedent in '' Rice v. Cayetano'' that "ancestry was a proxy for race" in ancestry-based elections, but the voting itself was not stopped.

Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month

The United States government has permanently designated the month of May to be Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month; before 2021 it was known as Asian Pacific American Heritage Month.

Native Hawaiian Community Consultation Policy

On October 18, 2022, the Department of Interior published a press release announcing the establishment of a new policy that would require the federal government to formally consult the Native Hawaiian Community in order to "further affirm and honor the special political and trust relationship between the United States and the Native Hawaiian Community." Secretary Deb Haaland noted in the press release that the new consultation policy would assist in upholding the sovereignty and right to self-determination Native Hawai'ian communities have.

In addition to bi-annual meetings between the Secretary and representatives of Native Hawaiian organizations on "matters of mutual interest", as well as mandatory training, the Consultation policy requires federal agencies to consult the Native Hawai'ian Community before engaging in any actions that "have the potential to significantly affect Native Hawaiian resources, rights, or lands by correspondingly charging the Office with fully integrating the policy and practice of meaningful consultation by such Federal agencies."
Its proposal explained the unique relationship Native Hawaiian have with the US government, defined as "government-to-sovereign" and recognized in 150 statutes: the unrelinquished sovereignty Native Hawaiiana have legally in the absence of a "government-to-government" relationship.

Violence Against Women Act

In December 2022, the Violence Against Women Act was amended to include ''Kānaka Maoli'' survivors of gender-based violence and Native Hawaiian organizations in grant funding.

Notable ''Kānaka Maoli''

In 1873, the first ''Kānaka Maoli'' were given permission from King Lunalilo (prior emigration of ''Kānaka Maoli'' outside of Hawaiʻi was not allowed) to permanently emigrate to the United States (Salt Lake City, Utah). They were Kiha Kaʻawa, and Kahana Pukahi, however Kahana Pukahi left the US in the later 1870's and went back to Hawaii, this remaining a subject of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Kiha ka'awa however remained in the US and was adopted by Mormon Sandwich Islands (Hawaiian islands) Missionary President George Nebeker upon arriving to the US, thus making Kiha Kaʻawa (adopted surname Nebeker) the very first native Hawaiian to become a U.S. citizen in 1873 prior to Hawaiʻi's annexation. Kiha Ka’awa was born November 15th 1862 in a village at Palawai, Lānaʻiʻ Maui County, Hawaiʻi, then moved to Lāʻie located at the Northeastern side of Oʻahu as a young boy to help develop the Mormon presence with George Nebeker and family at the present day site where the Mormon church is and the Polynesian Cultural Center is located. From Lāʻie, Kiha Ka’awa emigrated via ship with Kahana Pukahi, the Nebekers and William King to Salt Lake City Utah. Kiha remained in Utah, married twice, and had several children largely in Salt Lake City Utah area until he passed away on December 26th 1931. Kiha was visited in the US by Hawaiian King Kalākaua, in Ogden Utah where the King and Kiha spoke for several hours in their native language before the King's schedule had him back on his US trip, and on a train.

See also

* Culture of Hawaiʻi
* Hawaiian home land
* Hawaiian kinship
* Hawaiian sovereignty movement
* History of Hawaiʻi
* Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

References

Further reading

* Maenette K. Nee-Benham and Ronald H. Heck, Culture and Educational Policy in Hawaiʻi: The Silencing of Native Voices, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998
* Scott Cunningham, Hawaiian Magic and Spirituality, Llewellyn Worldwide, Ltd., 2000
* Rona Tamiko Tamiko Halualani, In the Name of Hawaiians: Native Identities and Cultural Politics, University of Minnesota Press, 2002
* Marshall D. Sahlins, How Natives Think: About Captain Cook, for Example, University of Chicago Press, 1995
* Thomas G. Thrum, Hawaiian Folk Tales: A Collection of Native Legends, International Law & Taxation Publishers, 2001
* Thomas G. Thrum, More Hawaiian Folk Tales: A Collection of Native Legends and Traditions, International Law & Taxation Publishers, 2001
* Houston Wood, Displacing Natives: The Rhetorical Production of Hawaiʻi, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999
* Kanalu G. Terry Young Rethinking the Native Hawaiian Past, Taylor & Francis, Inc., 1998
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External links

Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA)

Council for Native Hawaiian Advancement

Ka Huli Ao Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law official website

Ka Huli Ao Blog
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Native Hawaiian
Native Hawaiian people
Ethnic groups in the United States
Indigenous peoples of Polynesia
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Oceanian diaspora in the United States
Culture of the United States