General A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air force, air and space forces, marines or naval infantry. In some usages, the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colone ...

Muhammad Musa Khan (; ) was a Pakistani senior military officer who served as the 4th Commander-in-Chief of

Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army (, ), commonly known as the Pak Army (), is the Land warfare, land service branch and the largest component of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The president of Pakistan is the Commander-in-chief, supreme commander of the army. The ...

from 1958 to 1966, under president

Ayub Khan Mohammad Ayub Khan (14 May 1907 – 19 April 1974) was a Pakistani military dictator who served as the second president of Pakistan from 1958 until his resignation on 1969. He was the first native commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army, se ...

. Following his tenure as C-in-C of the Army, he later became a politician. Gaining

commission In-Commission or commissioning may refer to: Business and contracting * Commission (remuneration), a form of payment to an agent for services rendered ** Commission (art), the purchase or the creation of a piece of art most often on behalf of anot ...

as a Second lieutenant in the

British Indian Army The Indian Army was the force of British Raj, British India, until Indian Independence Act 1947, national independence in 1947. Formed in 1895 by uniting the three Presidency armies, it was responsible for the defence of both British India and ...

, Khan served with distinction in the

Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...

and

North African campaign The North African campaign of World War II took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943, fought between the Allies and the Axis Powers. It included campaigns in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts (Western Desert campaign, Desert Wa ...

s as part of the Allied effort in

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

. Following the

Partition of India The partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent dominion states, the Dominion of India, Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The Union of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Paki ...

in 1947, he opted for the

Dominion of Pakistan The Dominion of Pakistan, officially Pakistan, was an independent federal dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations, which existed from 14 August 1947 to Pakistan Day, 23 March 1956. It was created by the passing of the Indian Independence ...

, subsequently transferring his military service to the newly created Pakistan Army. He led a

brigade A brigade is a major tactical military unit, military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute ...

against

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

during the

First Kashmir War First most commonly refers to: * First, the ordinal form of the number 1 First or 1st may also refer to: Acronyms * Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters, an astronomical survey carried out by the Very Large Array * Far Infrared a ...

in 1947–1948, and eventually ascended the ranks to become the C-in-C of the Army after the 1958 coup d'état. Khan gained notability and public fame throughout

Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...

when he was in command of the Pakistan Army during the Second Kashmir War with India in 1965. Khan retired shortly after the 1965 war and embarked on a career in national politics, after which he was appointed to serve as the Governor of West Pakistan, a position he held from 1966 to 1969. In 1985, he was appointed as the Governor of Balochistan and remained in office until his death in 1991.

Early life

Musa was born on 20 October 1908 in

Quetta Quetta is the capital and largest city of the Pakistani province of Balochistan. It is the ninth largest city in Pakistan, with an estimated population of over 1.6 million in 2024. It is situated in the south-west of the country, lying in a ...

Baluchistan Balochistan ( ; , ), also spelled as Baluchistan or Baluchestan, is a historical region in West and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. This arid region of de ...

British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in South Asia. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another ...

to an ethnic Hazara family. His family was ''

sardar Sardar, also spelled as Sardaar (, , 'commander', literally 'headmaster'), is a title of royal family, royalty and nobility that was originally used to denote princes, noblemen, chiefs, kings and other Aristocracy (class), aristocrats. It ha ...

'' (lit. chief) of the

Sang-e-Masha Sang-e-Masha also spelled Sangi Masha () is the administrative center of Jaghori District in Ghazni Province, Afghanistan. See also * Jaghori District * Ghazni Province Ghazni (; ) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in sou ...

administration of Jaghori Hazara tribe and Musa was the eldest son of Yazdan Khan, who was the local Hazara tribal chief and himself a descendant of Sher Ali Khan, a Hazara elder from Jaghori,

Ghazni Ghazni (, ), historically known as Ghaznayn () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana (), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan with a population of around 190,000 people. The city is strategica ...

Early military career

After his schooling, he was recruited to the

as a ''Jawan'' in 1926 and eventually joined the

4th Hazara Pioneers The 4th Hazara Pioneers (or Independent Pioneer Battalion) was a regiment of the British Indian Army formed in 1922, when the Indian army moved from single battalion regiments to multi-battalion regiments; the 106th Hazara Pioneers became the 1st ...

after being promoted as the Naik a

non-commissioned officer A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is an enlisted rank, enlisted leader, petty officer, or in some cases warrant officer, who does not hold a Commission (document), commission. Non-commissioned officers usually earn their position of authority b ...

in the

. He was selected to join the

Indian Military Academy The Indian Military Academy (IMA) is one of the oldest military academies in India, and trains officers for the Indian Army. Located in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, it was established in 1932 following a recommendation by a military committee set up ...

(IMA) at

Dehra Dun Dehradun (), also known as Dehra Doon, is the winter capital and the most populous city of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is the administrative headquarters of the eponymous district and is governed by the Dehradun Municipal Corporation, ...

as a cadet in October 1932. The first batch of IMA, known as "The Pioneers", also produced India's first

Field Marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...

Sam Manekshaw Sam Hormusji Framji Jamshedji Manekshaw (3 April 1914 – 27 June 2008), also known as Sam Bahadur ("the Brave") was an Indian Army general officer who was the Chief of the Army Staff (India), Chief of the army staff during the Banglade ...

, and

Smith Dun Lieutenant General Smith Dun (11 November 1906 – 1979) was the commander-in-chief of the Burmese Army from 4 January 1948 to 1 February 1949. Personal life He was an ethnic Karen and the first person belonging to the ethnic group to hol ...

, the future commander-in-chief of the Burmese Army. In 1935, he was commissioned from the IMA, Dehradun following a two years and six months long military training. He was said to be an excellent sportsman and played

hockey ''Hockey'' is a family of List of stick sports, stick sports where two opposing teams use hockey sticks to propel a ball or disk into a goal. There are many types of hockey, and the individual sports vary in rules, numbers of players, apparel, ...

. In 1936, he was posted to the 6th Royal Battalion of the

13th Frontier Force Rifles The 13th Frontier Force Rifles was part of the British Indian Army, and after 1947, Pakistan Army. It was formed in 1922 by amalgamation of five existing regiments and consisted of five regular battalions. In 1947, it was allocated to the Pakista ...

as a Platoon Commander and saw actions in the violent Waziristan campaign in 1936 until 1938. He participated well in the

on the side of the United Kingdom and served well in the

Burma Campaign The Burma campaign was a series of battles fought in the British colony of British rule in Burma, Burma as part of the South-East Asian theatre of World War II. It primarily involved forces of the Allies of World War II, Allies (mainly from ...

and North African theatre as part of the

Norfolk Regiment The Royal Norfolk Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army until 1959. Its predecessor regiment was raised in 1685 as Henry Cornwall's Regiment of Foot. In 1751, it was numbered like most other British Army regiments and named ...

of the British Indian Army. In Middle East, he led the

company A company, abbreviated as co., is a Legal personality, legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether Natural person, natural, Juridical person, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members ...

and was listed in

mentioned in despatches To be mentioned in dispatches (or despatches) describes a member of the armed forces whose name appears in an official report written by a superior officer and sent to the high command, in which their gallant or meritorious action in the face of t ...

for "distinguished services in the Middle East during the period February to July 1941" and in the

London Gazette London is the capital and largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 14.9 million. London stands on the River Tha ...

30 December 1941 as a Lieutenant and acting Major. In 1942, his heroic action for valor won him the praise and was appointed as

Member of the Order of the British Empire The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities. It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two o ...

(MBE) for "gallant and distinguished services in the Middle East." In 1945, he was promoted as substantive

captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader or highest rank officer of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police depa ...

and substantive major in 1946 and was serving with the Machine Gun battalion,

by October 1942. During his time at the Indian Military Academy, Musa was selected as part of the first batch of cadets. Called "The Pioneers", his class also produced

and

, future army chiefs of Burma and India, respectively. After the partition of

that followed the establishment of Pakistan in 1947, he opted for

and joined the

as a

staff officer A military staff or general staff (also referred to as army staff, navy staff, or air staff within the individual services) is a group of officers, enlisted, and civilian staff who serve the commander of a division or other large milita ...

. In 1947 in the acting rank of

Brigadier Brigadier ( ) is a military rank, the seniority of which depends on the country. In some countries, it is a senior rank above colonel, equivalent to a brigadier general or commodore (rank), commodore, typically commanding a brigade of several t ...

, he commanded the 103rd Infantry Brigade based in

Sialkot Sialkot (Punjabi language, Punjabi, ) is a city located in Punjab, Pakistan. It is the capital of the Sialkot District and the List of most populous cities in Pakistan, 12th most populous city in Pakistan. The boundaries of Sialkot are joined ...

brigade in

Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...

and served as commander of military units in the first war with India. In 1948, he went on to command the 52nd Infantry Brigade positioned in Quetta. After the war in 1948, Musa studied and graduated from the Command and Staff College in

and proceeded to attend the

Imperial Defence College The Royal College of Defence Studies (RCDS) instructs the most promising senior officers of the British Armed Forces, His Majesty's Diplomatic Service and Civil Service in national defence and international security matters at the highest level ...

in United Kingdom prior to his graduation.

Later military career

In 1950s, Musa's commanding assignments included his role as the Commandant of the

East Pakistan Rifles East is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the fact that eas ...

, and also having served as GOC of 14th Infantry Division in

Dhaka Dhaka ( or ; , ), List of renamed places in Bangladesh, formerly known as Dacca, is the capital city, capital and list of cities and towns in Bangladesh, largest city of Bangladesh. It is one of the list of largest cities, largest and list o ...

East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...

, in 1951. In 1952, his last field assignment included his role as

General Officer Commanding General officer commanding (GOC) is the usual title given in the armies of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth (and some other nations, such as Ireland) to a general officer who holds a command appointment. Thus, a general might be the GOC ...

(GOC) of 8th Infantry Division positioned in

before stationed at the GHQ. Later, he soon became the Chief of Staff of the Pakistan Army (then the commander-in-chief of the army's deputy) in the rank of major-general at the Army GHQ. His career progressed well in the

army An army, ground force or land force is an armed force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by ...

and he was ascended to Commander-in-Chief by President

in 1958 when the latter deposed President

Iskander Mirza Iskander Ali Mirza (13 November 189913 November 1969) was a Bengali politician, statesman and military general who served as the Dominion of Pakistan's fourth and last governor-general of Pakistan from 1955 to 1956, and then as the Islamic Repub ...

and appointed himself

. Musa's promotion to the four-star appointment came with controversy in the country as many saw that his appointment was based on "dependability rather than merit." His elevation also meant that he would supersede three of the most senior officers in the Pakistan Army: Gen Adam Khan, Gen

Sher Ali Khan Pataudi Nawabzada Sher Ali Khan of Pataudi () Hilal-i-Jurat, HJ (13 May 1913 – 29 May 2002) was a Pakistan Army general who served as Chief of the General Staff (Pakistan), Chief of the General Staff and later became a diplomat and politician. Born int ...

, and Gen Latif Khan, all of whom were decorated Sandhurst graduates. President Ayub delegated the military affairs to General Musa when heading the civic government. In 1960, he was appointed to serve as the President of the

Pakistan Hockey Federation The Pakistan Hockey Federation () is the governing body for the sport of field hockey in Pakistan. It is affiliated with the International Hockey Federation (FIH), Asian Hockey Federation (AHF) and Pakistan Sports Board (PSB). Management posit ...

which he remained in the post until being retired in 1966. It was during his stint as president when the Hockey Team won its first

Gold Medal A gold medal is a medal awarded for highest achievement in a non-military field. Its name derives from the use of at least a fraction of gold in form of plating or alloying in its manufacture. Since the eighteenth century, gold medals have b ...

against the Indian Hockey Team in the

Summer Olympics The Summer Olympic Games, also known as the Summer Olympics or the Games of the Olympiad, is a major international multi-sport event normally held once every four years. The inaugural Games took place in 1896 in Athens, then part of the King ...

in Rome in 1960.

Bajaur Campaign

In September 1960, Afghan Regular Troops disguised as local tribesmen started border incursions into the NWFP (now

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Northern Pakistan, northwestern region of the country, Khyber ...

) province of Pakistan with the goal of starting a local rebellion to capture the Pashtun Inhabited Territory, under General Musa's leadership, Pakistani troops and Local Pashtun tribesmen along with Pakistan Airforce support pushed back the Afghans in 1961 and captured many Afghan soldiers.

The 1965 War

In 1964, he became aware of

covert operation A covert operation or undercover operation is a military or police operation involving a covert agent or troops acting under an assumed cover to conceal the identity of the party responsible. US law Under US law, the Central Intelligence A ...

studied by the

Foreign ministry In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and relations, diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral re ...

led by Foreign Minister

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister and politician who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan from 19 ...

, and presented views against the operation due to no linkage between the covert actions and the conventional backup. General Musa also had the support from

President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...

Ayub Khan on his views; however, the war began in 1965. General Musa did not order the

without the confirmation by President Ayub Khan despite Foreign Minister Bhutto's urging. After the

Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...

moved to the

Rann of Kutch The Rann of Kutch is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located mostly in the Kutch district of the Indian state of Gujarat, with a minor portion extending into the Sindh province of Pakistan. ...

, General Musa ordered Army GHQ to respond to the Indian Army by moving the 12th Division. After reviewing the aerial view of the area and getting directions from President Ayub to make way for Maj General

Yahya Khan Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (4 February 191710 August 1980) was a Pakistani army officer who served as the third president of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971. He also served as the fifth Commander-in-Chief, Pakistan, commander-in-chief of the Pakistan ...

, General Musa controversially relieved GOC Major-General Akhtar Hussain Malik and handed over the command of the 12th Division to Major-General

, which resulted in critical time delays of troops movements and eventual failure of the operation. About the failure due to command change, General Musa justified his actions that he had not had time to select a commander or staff despite the authority given to him. He led and commanded the

in the largest

tank battle Armoured warfare or armored warfare (American English; see spelling differences), is the use of armoured fighting vehicles in modern warfare. It is a major component of modern methods of war. The premise of armored warfare rests on the abili ...

, which earned him public fame. His strategy based on classical trench method supported by armory,

artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...

and

airpower Airpower or air power consists of the application of military aviation, military strategy and strategic theory to the realm of aerial warfare and close air support. Airpower began in the advent of powered flight early in the 20th century. A ...

was tactically powerful and successful as it stopped the advancing

but politically unsuccessful due to the country being party of the

peace treaty A peace treaty is an treaty, agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually country, countries or governments, which formally ends a declaration of war, state of war between the parties. It is different from an armistice, which is an ag ...

brokered by the

USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

in 1965. General Musa's military service is unique due to the fact that he had received two extensions as a Commander-in-chief from the period of 1958 until 1966. Upon his retirement, General Musa did not recommend Yahya Khan's nomination as Commander-in-chief and Yahya's name was not included in the list of nominations sent to President Ayub Khan; nonetheless, General Musa was succeeded by General Yahya Khan as Commander in Chief. About the war with India in 1965, General Musa provided his views and testimonies in two books written on

military history Military history is the study of War, armed conflict in the Human history, history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to Politics, local and international relationship ...

of Pakistan Army: first being the My Version: India-Pakistan War, 1965 and the second being the Jawan to General: Recollections of a Pakistani Soldier, the latter was mainly his biography.

Retirement and Politics

At the time of his retirement in 1966, General Musa was a famed and popular military figure which led President Ayub Khan to appoint him as the Governor of West Pakistan. News of the appointment was met with enthusiasm by the West Pakistani people. In 1967, he became Governor of West Pakistan until submitting his resignation on 2 March 1969 when General Yahya Khan imposed

martial law Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties ...

to takeover the

presidency A presidency is an administration or the executive, the collective administrative and governmental entity that exists around an office of president of a state or nation. Although often the executive branch of government, and often personified b ...

. From 1969 to 1984, he settled in

Karachi Karachi is the capital city of the Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Sindh, Pakistan. It is the List of cities in Pakistan by population, largest city in Pakistan and 12th List of largest cities, largest in the world, with a popul ...

while receiving a

military pension A pension (; ) is a fund into which amounts are paid regularly during an individual's working career, and from which periodic payments are made to support the person's retirement from work. A pension may be either a "defined benefit plan", wher ...

. In 1985, he became active in national politics on a

Pakistan Muslim League The Pakistan Muslim League (; known as PML), is the name of several different Pakistani political parties that have dominated the centre-right platform in the country. The ''Muslim League'' (the original successor of the All-India Muslim ...

platform led by Prime Minister M. K. Junejo. He was appointed as Governor of Balochistan by the President

Zia-ul-Haq Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (12 August 192417 August 1988) was a Pakistani military officer and statesman who served as the sixth president of Pakistan from 1978 until his death in an airplane crash in 1988. He also served as the second chief of ...

after the

general elections A general election is an electoral process to choose most or all members of a governing body at the same time. They are distinct from by-elections, which fill individual seats that have become vacant between general elections. General elections ...

held in 1985.name="Hazara The Best" After the

held in 1988, Governor Musa controversially dissolved the provincial assembly on the then-Chief Minister

Zafarullah Khan Jamali Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali (1 January 1944 – 2 December 2020) was a Pakistani politician who served as the 13th prime minister of Pakistan from 2002 to 2004. He was the first and only elected prime minister from Balochistan, Pakistan. Born int ...

's advice. However, the Balochistan High Court restored the provincial assembly amid public condemnation of the Governor's move. The step towards dissolving the assembly was believed to have been taken with the consent of the

and

Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...

. On 12 March 1991, General Musa died while in office and per accordance to his wishes, he was buried in

Mashhad Mashhad ( ; ), historically also known as Mashad, Meshhed, or Meshed in English, is the List of Iranian cities by population, second-most-populous city in Iran, located in the relatively remote north-east of the country about from Tehran. ...

, Razavi Khorasan, Iran. In his honour, the provincial Balochistan government established a vocational school, the General Muhammad Musa Inter-College (GMMIC), in

, Pakistan in 1987.

Post-1965 war

About the war with India in 1965, General Musa provided his views and testimonies in two books written on

of Pakistan Army: the first being ''My Version'' and the second being ''Jawan to General: Recollections of a Pakistani Soldier'' which was also his autobiography. General Mohammad Musa, who commanded the Army in the '65 war, gave his account of how the events unfolded at GHQ, the C-in-C and the Supreme Commander Field Marshal Ayub Khan surprising India on 6 September 1965 in ''My Version: India-Pakistan War, 1965''

Awards and decorations

References

External links

Official profile at Pakistan Army website
, - {{DEFAULTSORT:Musa, Muhammad 1908 births 1991 deaths Graduates of the Staff College, Quetta Pakistani people of Hazara descent People from Quetta Military personnel from Karachi Hazara politicians Hazara military personnel Indian Military Academy alumni Frontier Force Regiment officers British Indian Army officers Indian Army personnel of World War II Graduates of the Royal College of Defence Studies Pakistani generals Commanders-in-Chief, Pakistan Army Military personnel of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Pakistani autobiographers Pakistani memoirists Pakistan Hockey Federation presidents Governors of West Pakistan Governors of Balochistan, Pakistan Pakistan Muslim League politicians Recipients of Hilal-i-Jur'at Recipients of Hilal-i-Imtiaz Pakistani sports executives and administrators Generals of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 20th-century memoirists Burials in Mashhad Burials at Imam Reza Shrine Indian Members of the Order of the British Empire Pakistan Command and Staff College alumni Pakistani recipients of the Order of the British Empire