Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al-Maghili (), commonly known as Muhammad al-Maghili (14401505) was a

Berber Berber or Berbers may refer to: Ethnic group * Berbers, an ethnic group native to Northern Africa * Berber languages, a family of Afro-Asiatic languages Places * Berber, Sudan, a town on the Nile People with the surname * Ady Berber (1913–196 ...

'alim In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...

from

Tlemcen Tlemcen (; ) is the second-largest city in northwestern Algeria after Oran and is the capital of Tlemcen Province. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it exports through the port of Rachgoun. It had a population of ...

, the capital of the

Kingdom of Tlemcen The Kingdom of Tlemcen or Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen () was a kingdom ruled by the Berber Zayyanid dynasty in what is now the northwest of Algeria. Its territory stretched from Tlemcen to the Chelif bend and Algiers, and at its zenith reached ...

, now in modern-day

Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the northeast by Tunisia; to Algeria–Libya border, the east by Libya; to Alger ...

. Al-Maghili was responsible for converting the ruling classes to Islam among

Hausa Hausa may refer to: * Hausa people, an ethnic group of West Africa * Hausa language, spoken in West Africa * Hausa Kingdoms, a historical collection of Hausa city-states * Hausa (horse) or Dongola horse, an African breed of riding horse See also ...

Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people are an ethnic group in Sahara, Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, South Sudan, Darfur, ...

, and

Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym, depending on variety: ''Imuhaɣ'', ''Imušaɣ'', ''Imašeɣăn'' or ''Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group, traditionally nomadic pastoralists, who principally inhabit th ...

peoples in West Africa. Al-Maghili toured North and West Africa, observing the state of

sharia Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...

and challenging the status of

dhimmi ' ( ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligation under ''s ...

s within the region. His radical views on such subjects would set him against many notable

Maghreb The Maghreb (; ), also known as the Arab Maghreb () and Northwest Africa, is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb al ...

ian scholars and authorities of the time. In the confines of his theological views, Maghili advanced his political thought in the form of legal advice at the courts of West African rulers and still practiced his crafts in the art of Islamic sciences. Though not ushering in drastic change, Maghili played a great role in the

Islamization The spread of Islam spans almost 1,400 years. The early Muslim conquests that occurred following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE led to the creation of the caliphates, expanding over a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted ...

of West Africa, his writing has been copied, studied, and implemented in West Africa ever since its conception, making him one of the most influential figures in the development of Islam in the region. Maghili's views would result in the persecution of the Jewish community in

Tuat Tuat, or Touat (), is a natural region of desert in central Algeria that contains a string of small oasis, oases. In the past, the oases were important for Camel caravan, caravans crossing the Sahara. Geography Tuat lies to the south of the Gr ...

and the destruction of the main

synagogue A synagogue, also called a shul or a temple, is a place of worship for Jews and Samaritans. It is a place for prayer (the main sanctuary and sometimes smaller chapels) where Jews attend religious services or special ceremonies such as wed ...

Tamentit Tamentit ( is a town and communes of Algeria, commune of Fenoughil District in Adrar Province in southcentral Algeria. According to the 2008 census, it has a population of 9481, up from 7912 in 1998, with an annual growth rate of 1.9%. Until the ...

. This would occur at the backdrop of anti-

rhetoric by Maghili and the volatile position of

s within the region. Most information on Al-Maghili's life can be collected from two sources, Ibn Askar's, ''Dawhat al-Nashir li-Mahasin man kana min al-Maghrib min Ahl al-Karn al-ashir'', and Ahmad Baba al-Tinbukti's, ''Nayl al-Ibtihaj bi-tatriz al-Dibaz.'' Original manuscripts of his work are available from the United Nations

World Digital Library The World Digital Library (WDL) is an international digital library operated by UNESCO and the United States Library of Congress. The WDL has stated that its mission is to promote international and intercultural understanding, expand the volume ...

Early life

Muhammad al-Maghili was born in Tlemcen c. 1440 into a

family of the Maghila tribe. In Tlemcen, he devoted himself to the Islamic sciences, studying under Al-Imam Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi (d. 1470/1), a distinguished scholar in the region, and Abu Zakariya Yahya ibn Yadir ibn 'Atiq al-Tadalsi (d. 1472/3), who would become the

Qadi A qadi (; ) is the magistrate or judge of a Sharia court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and minors, and supervision and auditing of public works. History The term '' was in use from ...

. Along with the guidance and correspondence with lesser known scholars throughout his life, Al-Maghili became a master of

tafsir Tafsir ( ; ) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a ''tafsir'' is a ' (; plural: ). A Quranic ''tafsir'' attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding ...

hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...

, and

fiqh ''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.Fiqh
Encyclopædia Britannica ''Fiqh'' is of ...

, while committing the fundamentals of the

Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...

to memory. After traveling the

, observing the state of

and the status of

s in the region, Al-Maghili arrived at the court of Fez to debate his views and gain favor with the

Wattasid The Wattasid dynasty (, ''al-waṭṭāsīyūn'') was a ruling dynasty of Morocco. Like the Marinid dynasty, its rulers were of Zenata Berber descent. The two families were related, and the Marinids recruited many viziers from the Wattasids. T ...

sultan, Abu Zakariya al-Wattasi. Al-Maghili's inflammatory views were not tolerated at Fez, whose jurists turned the sultan against Al-Maghili, prompting him to leave Morocco.

Time in Tuat

After his dismissal at the court of Fez and a lack of success in gaining support for his work, Al-Maghili settled in the town of

(1477-8), in the region of

, a major stop on the trans-Saharan trade, was considered one of the gateways to the

Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...

region from North Africa. The Jewish community in the region had amassed a great deal of wealth credited to this positioning and the ability to pursue professions that were prohibited for the Muslims, due to their faith. This elevated status and level of influence in the region made it easy for Al-Maghili to stir the anger of the impoverished population against the Jewish community. With the support of his son, Abd Al-Jabbar, Al-Maghili incited a mob to destroy the synagogue at

, the following disorder would see the mob turn on the Jewish population, resulting in their elimination and expulsion. It is known that Al-Maghili even put a price of seven

mithqal Mithqāl () is a unit of mass equal to which is mostly used for measuring precious metals, such as gold, and other commodities, like saffron. The name was also applied as an alternative term for the gold dinar, a coin that was used throughout ...

s of gold on the head of every Jew. Al-Maghili had to flee the region of

after causing such civil and religious strife.

Views on ''Dhimmis''

Before the rebuttal at the court of Fez and his settlement in

, Al-Maghili had comprised many works and preached his views on the status of

s in the

region. Al-Maghili was an adherent to the

Maliki The Maliki school or Malikism is one of the four major madhhab, schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas () in the 8th century. In contrast to the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the ...

school of thought and he derived a radical perspective of the school and its views on politics, religion, and society. Al-Maghili's work also reflected the views of society towards the political and social upheaval occurring in the region. This upheaval was caused by external and internal events, such as the

Spanish Inquisition The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition () was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile and lasted until 1834. It began toward the end of ...

and

Reconquista The ''Reconquista'' (Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese for ) or the fall of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christian Reconquista#Northern Christian realms, kingdoms waged ag ...

'','' which was causing an influx of refugees, the transgression of Christian powers on Muslim lands, and the ever growing wealth disparity in certain areas. Al-Maghili believed that Muslims and non-Muslims should live their lives separately, under a strict interpretation of sharia law. With the aid of his son, Al-Maghili tirelessly worked against the Jewish population of

, with a particular distaste for the Jews of

, who he believed were destroying Islamic society from within by infiltrating positions of authority. Al-Maghili called for the destruction of all synagogues built under the advent of Islam and to prohibit the construction of new ones. He believed that those who helped or befriended Jews and non-Muslims could rightfully be persecuted. This would culminate in a decree stating for the right of the faithful to murder Jews, confiscate their property, and enslave their women and children. In the case of the Jews of

, Al-Maghili argued that they had violated their status as

s, which voided the protection and rights they had while living in Muslim lands. The destruction of the synagogue at

was justified as, according to Al-Maghili,

s were not allowed to practice their religion publicly or erect edifices. The Jews, due to their wealth and status, were blamed of having too much proximity to the religious and political authorities of the region, therefore lacking total humiliation or abasement, as required of

s under Muslim rule. Their lack of public ceremony and untimely submission of the

jizya Jizya (), or jizyah, is a type of taxation levied on non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Sharia, Islamic law. The Quran and hadiths mention jizya without specifying its rate or amount,Sabet, Amr (2006), ''The American Journal of Islamic Soc ...

'','' was also seen as an affront to Muslim rule. Al-Maghili also cited less common rules, such as dress and etiquette of

s as a need for further subjugation.

Time in West Africa

Al-Maghili's support of such controversial views and the enacting of said views on the Jewish community of Tuat had forced him to move southwards, towards the courts of West African rulers. His time in West Africa is defined more by missionary and scholastic activities and his time spent in the region is believed to extend from 1492 to 1503. Al-Maghili visited the court of the

Sultanate of Agadez The Sultanate of Agadez (also known as Tenere Sultanate of Aïr, Sultanate of Aïr, or Asben") was a Berber kingdom centered first in the city of Agadez (initially, in the village of Tadaliza) in the Aïr Mountains, located at the southern edge o ...

where he garnered a substantial group of followers, succeeded by travel to prominent

sub-Saharan Sub-Saharan Africa is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara. These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the list of sovereign states and ...

cities such as

Takedda Takedda was a town and former kingdom located in present-day Niger. The archaeological site at Azelik wan Birni is believed to be the ruins of ancient Takedda. History Takedda was founded by the Sanhaja, a Berber tribal confederation inhabiting ...

Kano Kano may refer to: Places *Kano State, a state in Northern Nigeria *Kano (city), a city in Nigeria, and the capital of Kano State ** Kingdom of Kano, a Hausa kingdom between the 10th and 14th centuries ** Sultanate of Kano, a Hausa kingdom betwee ...

Katsina Katsina State ( ; 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤳𞤢𞥁𞤭𞤲𞤢) is a state in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is bordered to the west by Zamfara State, to the east by Kano and Jigawa states, and to the south by Kaduna St ...

, and finally

Gao Gao (or Gawgaw/Kawkaw) is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region. The city is located on the River Niger, east-southeast of Timbuktu on the left bank at the junction with the Tilemsi valley. For much of its history Gao was an imp ...

, the former capital city of the

Songhai Empire The Songhai Empire was a state located in the western part of the Sahel during the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest African empires in history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its lar ...

Kano

Al-Maghili was welcomed to the court of

Muhammad Rumfa Muhammad dan Yakubu, known as Muhammad Rumfa was the sultan of Kano from 1463 until 1499. His reign was characterized by wealth and opulence and signaled the rise of the Kano's commercial dominance in the region.Under the guidance of famed Berbe ...

, where he devised ideas on the structure of a government, qualities of an ideal ruler, and the administration of justice. It is around this time that Al-Maghili references to the idea of him being a

mujaddid A ''mujaddid'' () is an Islamic term for one who brings "renewal" () to the religion. According to the popular Muslim tradition, it refers to a person who appears at the turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revitalize Islam, clean ...

'','' or reviver of Islam, which is believed to be the introduction of the concept to West Africa, and to an extent he enacted this role of

by influencing the reformists attempts in Kano. Upon the request of

, Al-Maghili wrote his famous treatise on statecraft, ''Taj al-din fi ma yajib 'ala I-muluk,'' translated to “the crown of religion concerning the obligations of kings”, meant to be a guide to good government in line with Islam. Along with writing the ''Jumla Mukhtasara'' (1491) translated to the "summarized sentences", which focused on the prevention of crime.

Gao

Al-Maghili arrived at the court of

around 1498, a pivotal time in the history of the

. The ruler of the empire, Askia Mohammad Turi, had just established the

Askia dynasty The Askiya dynasty, also known as the Askia dynasty, ruled the Songhai Empire at the height of that state's power. It was founded in 1493 by Askia Mohammad I, a general of the Songhai Empire who usurped the Sonni dynasty. The Askiya ruled from Gao ...

in 1493, and was looking to legitimize his political and religious authority. After toppling the previous

Sonni dynasty The Sonni dynasty, Sunni dynasty or Si dynasty was a dynasty of rulers of the Songhai Empire of medieval West Africa. The origins of the dynasty lies in its predecessor Za Dynasty. The last ruler, Sonni Baru, ruled until 1493 when the throne was u ...

, which was seen as neglecting Islamic law and practices, the religious identity of the

was split between the authorities of

Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; ; Koyra Chiini: ; ) is an ancient city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. It is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali, having a population of 32,460 in the 2018 census. ...

, the rising clerics within the Askia dynasty, and the newly arrived Al-Maghili. Even after Al-Maghili expressed his views, Askia Mohammad Turi retained a degree of tolerability that was present within Sudanic Islam. Around this time Al-Maghili wrote the “Replies”, a series of seven questions, some of which had several parts, asked by Askia Mohammad after his return from

Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...

, and answered by Al-Maghili. Answers indicate condemnation of the previous ruler of the

, and therefore legitimization of the

, along with criticism of the local Islamic faith and their clerics. Other topics range from slavery, government, taxation, inheritance, relationship of scholars to the state, instances in which jihad could be declared, the grounds on which one could be considered an unbeliever. Unheard by many Muslims scholars of the time, Al-Maghili solidifies the idea of revolution in the Muslim state, in which jihad could be declared by Muslims to depose of a Muslim government. The real impact of the ''Replies'' was not as widely felt in Songhai but throughout history, in times of civil and religious strife, where Al- Maghili's rigid opinions provided answers and stability. However, Askia Mohammad Turi, who had just returned from Hajj, viewed the state of Islam in his lands as being distorted, and was quick to build on and listen to Al-Maghili's ideas. This influence over the political and religious matters of the Songhai ruler allowed Al-Maghili to enact a massacre of Mafusa clerics. The Mafusa are a Berber tribe that formed a majority of the population in the city of Timbuktu and upheld its religious authority. Al-Maghili's influence in

would come to an end after hearing of the murder of his son, Abd Al-Jabbar, at the hands of Tuati Jews. Hearing of the murder, Al-Maghili convinced Askia Mohammad Turi, to arrest all Tuati Jews in the area, but Al-Maghili was reprimanded by the

of Timbuktu, Mahmud b. Umar, who secured the release of the Tuati's. Wanting to depart to

as soon as possible, Al-Maghili loses his influential role at court, allowing

to take its place as the religious authority in the

for the time being.

Return to Tuat and Death

Al-Maghili, insisting the massacre of all Tuati's, was denied military support by Askia Mohammad Turi. Facing rejection, Al-Maghili returned to

and petitions the Songhai ruler again for support against Tuat. Whether Al-Maghili received the support is not known but, it is recorded that he returned to

at the head of a considerable force, laying siege to a base in the vicinity of Tamentit, and then proceeding to sack both locations and persecuting their Jewish populations (1503). Al-Maghili retires to his zawiya at Bu Ali in

and passes away in 1504.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maghili, Muhammad al- 15th-century births 1505 deaths 15th-century Berber people 16th-century Berber people Algerian Maliki scholars Berber Muslims Berber scholars 15th-century Muslim scholars of Islam Jews and Judaism in Algeria Antisemitism in North Africa Muslims with branch missing People from Tlemcen Scholars of precolonial Africa