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Moles are small, subterranean
mammal A mammal () is a vertebrate animal of the Class (biology), class Mammalia (). Mammals are characterised by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a broad neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three ...
s. They have cylindrical bodies, velvety fur, very small, inconspicuous eyes and ears, reduced hindlimbs, and short, powerful forelimbs with large paws adapted for digging. The word "mole" most commonly refers to many species in the family Talpidae (which are named after the
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
word for mole, ''talpa''). True moles are found in most parts of North America, Europe (except for
Ireland Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
) and Asia. Other mammals referred to as moles include the African golden moles and the Australian marsupial moles, which have a similar ecology and lifestyle to true moles but are unrelated. Moles may be viewed as pests to gardeners, but they provide positive contributions to soil, gardens, and ecosystems, including soil aeration, feeding on slugs and small creatures that eat plant roots, and providing prey for other wildlife. They eat earthworms and other small invertebrates in the soil.


Terminology

In
Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English pe ...
, moles were known as ''moldwarps''. By the era of
Early Modern English Early Modern English (sometimes abbreviated EModEFor example, or EMnE) or Early New English (ENE) is the stage of the English language from the beginning of the Tudor period to the English Interregnum and Restoration, or from the transit ...
, the mole was also known in English as ''mouldywarp'' or ''mouldiwarp'', a word having cognates in other
Germanic languages The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania, and Southern Africa. The most widely spoke ...
such as German (''Maulwurf''), and Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic (''muldvarp'', ''moldvarp'', ''mullvad'', ''moldvarpa''), where ''muld/mull/mold'' refers to soil and ''varp/vad/varpa'' refers to throwing, hence "one who throws soil" or "dirt-tosser". Male moles are called "boars"; females are called "sows".


Characteristics


Underground breathing

Moles have been found to tolerate higher levels of carbon dioxide than other mammals, because their blood cells have a special form of
hemoglobin Hemoglobin (haemoglobin, Hb or Hgb) is a protein containing iron that facilitates the transportation of oxygen in red blood cells. Almost all vertebrates contain hemoglobin, with the sole exception of the fish family Channichthyidae. Hemoglobin ...
that has a higher affinity to
oxygen Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...
than other forms. In addition, moles use oxygen more effectively by reusing the exhaled air, and can survive in low-oxygen environments such as burrows.


Extra thumbs

Moles have polydactyl forepaws: each has an extra thumb (also known as a prepollex) next to the regular thumb. While the mole's other digits have multiple joints, the prepollex has a single, sickle-shaped bone that develops later and differently from the other fingers during
embryogenesis An embryo ( ) is the initial stage of development for a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male ...
from a transformed sesamoid bone in the wrist, independently evolved but similar to the giant panda thumb. This supernumerary digit is species-specific, as it is not present in
shrew Shrews ( family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to dif ...
s, the mole's closest relatives. Androgenic steroids are known to affect the growth and formation of bones, and a connection is possible between this species-specific trait and the male genital apparatus in female moles of many mole species (
gonad A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland is a Heterocrine gland, mixed gland and sex organ that produces the gametes and sex hormones of an organism. Female reproductive cells are egg cells, and male reproductive cells are sperm. The male gon ...
s with testicular and ovary tissues).


Diet

Moles are omnivores, but their diet primarily consists of earthworms and other small invertebrates found in the soil. The mole runs are in reality "worm traps", the mole sensing when a worm falls into the tunnel and quickly running along to kill and eat it. Because their saliva contains a
toxin A toxin is a naturally occurring poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. They occur especially as proteins, often conjugated. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919), derived ...
that can paralyze earthworms, moles are able to store their still-living prey for later consumption. They construct special underground " larders" for just this purpose; researchers have discovered such larders with over a thousand earthworms in them. Before eating earthworms, moles pull them between their squeezed paws to force the collected earth and dirt out of the worm's gut. The star-nosed mole can detect, catch and eat food faster than the human eye can follow.


Breeding

Breeding season for a mole depends on species, but is generally from February through May. Males search for females by letting out high-pitched squeals and tunneling through foreign areas. The gestation period of the Eastern (North America) mole (''Scalopus aquaticus'') is approximately 42 days. Three to five young are born, mainly in March and early April. Townsend's moles mate in February and March, and the 2–4 young are born in March and April after a gestation period of about 1 month.


Social structure

Moles are allegedly solitary creatures, coming together only to mate. Territories may overlap, but moles avoid each other and males may fight fiercely if they meet.


Classification

The family Talpidae contains all the true moles and some of their close relatives. Those species called " shrew moles" represent an intermediate form between the moles and their
shrew Shrews ( family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to dif ...
ancestors, and as such may not be fully described by the article. Moles were traditionally classified in the order
Insectivora The Order (biology), order Insectivora (from Latin ''insectum'' "insect" and ''vorare'' "to eat") is a now-abandoned biological grouping within the class of mammals. Some species have now been moved out, leaving the remaining ones in the order ...
, but that order has since been abandoned because it has been shown to not be
monophyletic In biological cladistics for the classification of organisms, monophyly is the condition of a taxonomic grouping being a clade – that is, a grouping of organisms which meets these criteria: # the grouping contains its own most recent co ...
. Moles are now classified with
shrew Shrews ( family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to dif ...
s and hedgehogs, in the more narrowly defined order Eulipotyphla. * Subfamily Scalopinae: New World moles ** Tribe Condylurini: Star-nosed mole (North America) *** Genus '' Condylura'': Star-nosed mole (the sole species) ** Tribe Scalopini: New World moles *** Genus '' Alpiscaptulus'': Medog mole (China) ***Genus '' Parascalops'': Hairy-tailed mole (northeastern North America) *** Genus '' Scalopus'': Eastern mole (North America) *** Genus '' Scapanulus'': Gansu mole (China) *** Genus '' Scapanus'': Western North American moles (five species) * Subfamily Talpinae: Old World moles, desmans, and shrew moles **Tribe Desmanini ***Genus '' Desmana:'' Russian desman ***Genus '' Galemys:'' Pyrenean desman **Tribe Talpini: Old World moles *** Genus '' Euroscaptor'': Ten Asian species *** Genus '' Mogera'': Nine species from Japan, Korea, and eastern China *** Genus '' Parascaptor'': White-tailed mole, southern Asia *** Genus '' Scaptochirus'': Short-faced mole, China *** Genus '' Talpa'': Thirteen species, Europe and western Asia ** Tribe Scaptonychini: Long-tailed mole *** Genus '' Scaptonyx'': Long-tailed mole (China and Myanmar (Burma)) ** Tribe Urotrichini: Japanese shrew moles *** Genus '' Dymecodon'': True's shrew mole *** Genus '' Urotrichus'': Japanese shrew mole ** Tribe Neurotrichini: New World shrew moles *** Genus '' Neurotrichus'': American shrew mole (US Pacific Northwest, southwest British Columbia) * Subfamily Uropsilinae: Asian shrew moles ** Genus '' Uropsilus'': Five species in China, Bhutan, and Myanmar (Burma)


Other "moles"

Many groups of burrowing animals ( pink fairy armadillos, tuco-tucos, mole rats,
mole cricket Mole (or Molé) may refer to: Animals * Mole (animal) or "true mole" * Golden mole, southern African mammals * Marsupial mole, Australian mammals Other common meanings * Nevus, a growth on human skin ** Melanocytic nevus, a specific type of ...
s, pygmy mole crickets, and mole crabs) have independently developed close physical similarities with moles due to
convergent evolution Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last comm ...
; two of these are so similar to true moles, they are commonly called and thought of as "moles" in common English, although they are completely unrelated to true moles or to each other. These are the golden moles of southern Africa and the marsupial moles of Australia. While difficult to distinguish from each other, they are most easily distinguished from true moles by shovel-like patches on their noses, which they use in tandem with their abbreviated forepaws to swim through sandy soils.


Golden moles

The golden moles belong to the same branch on the
phylogenetic tree A phylogenetic tree or phylogeny is a graphical representation which shows the evolutionary history between a set of species or taxa during a specific time.Felsenstein J. (2004). ''Inferring Phylogenies'' Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA. In ...
as the tenrecs, called Tenrecomorpha, which, in turn, stem from a main branch of placental mammals called the Afrosoricida. This means that they share a closer common ancestor with such existing afrosoricids as
elephant Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant ('' Loxodonta africana''), the African forest elephant (''L. cyclotis''), and the Asian elephant ('' Elephas maximus ...
s, manatees and aardvarks than they do with other placental mammals, such as true Talpidae moles. * ORDER AFROSORICIDA ** Suborder Tenrecomorpha *** Family Tenrecidae: tenrecs, 34 species in 10 genera ** Suborder Chrysochloridea *** Family Chrysochloridae **** Subfamily Chrysochlorinae ***** Genus '' Carpitalpa'' ****** Arends' golden mole (''Carpitalpa arendsi'') ***** Genus '' Chlorotalpa'' ****** Duthie's golden mole (''Chlorotalpa duthieae'') ****** Sclater's golden mole (''Chlorotalpa sclateri'') ***** Genus '' Chrysochloris'' ****** Subgenus ''Chrysochloris'' ******* Cape golden mole (''Chrysochloris asiatica'') ******* Visagie's golden mole (''Chrysochloris visagiei'') ****** Subgenus ''Kilimatalpa'' ******* Stuhlmann's golden mole (''Chrysochloris stuhlmanni'') ***** Genus '' Chrysospalax'' ****** Giant golden mole (''Chrysospalax trevelyani'') ****** Rough-haired golden mole (''Chrysospalax villosus'') ***** Genus '' Cryptochloris'' ****** De Winton's golden mole (''Cryptochloris wintoni'') ****** Van Zyl's golden mole (''Cryptochloris zyli'') ***** Genus '' Eremitalpa'' ****** Grant's golden mole (''Eremitalpa granti'') **** Subfamily Amblysominae ***** Genus '' Amblysomus'' ****** Fynbos golden mole (''Amblysomus corriae'') ****** Hottentot golden mole (''Amblysomus hottentotus'') ****** Marley's golden mole (''Amblysomus marleyi'') ****** Robust golden mole (''Amblysomus robustus'') ****** Highveld golden mole (''Amblysomus septentrionalis'') ***** Genus '' Calcochloris'' ****** Subgenus ''Huetia'' ******* Congo golden mole (''Calcochloris leucorhinus'') ****** Subgenus ''Calcochloris'' ******* Yellow golden mole (''Calcochloris obtusirostris'') ****** Subgenus ''
incertae sedis or is a term used for a taxonomy (biology), taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertainty ...
'' ******* Somali golden mole (''Calcochloris tytonis'') ***** Genus '' Neamblysomus'' ****** Juliana's golden mole (''Neamblysomus julianae'') ****** Gunning's golden mole (''Neamblysomus gunningi'')


Marsupial moles

As marsupials, these moles are even more distantly related to true talpid moles than golden moles are, both of which belong to the
Eutheria Eutheria (from Greek , 'good, right' and , 'beast'; ), also called Pan-Placentalia, is the clade consisting of Placentalia, placental mammals and all therian mammals that are more closely related to placentals than to marsupials. Eutherians ...
, or placental mammals. This means that they are more closely related to such existing Australian marsupials as kangaroos or
koala The koala (''Phascolarctos cinereus''), sometimes inaccurately called the koala bear, is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only Extant taxon, extant representative of the Family (biology), family ''Phascolar ...
s, and even to a lesser extent to American marsupials, such as opossums, than they are to placental mammals, such as golden or Talpidae moles. Class Mammalia *Subclass Prototheria: monotremes ( echidnas and the platypus) *Subclass Theriiformes: live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives **Infraclass Holotheria: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives ***Supercohort
Theria Theria ( or ; ) is a scientific classification, subclass of mammals amongst the Theriiformes. Theria includes the eutherians (including the Placentalia, placental mammals) and the metatherians (including the marsupials) but excludes the egg-lay ...
: live-bearing mammals ****Cohort Marsupialia: marsupials *****Magnorder Ameridelphia: New World marsupials ****** Order Didelphimorphia (opossums) ****** Order Paucituberculata (shrew opossums) *****Superorder Australidelphia Australian marsupials ****** Order Dasyuromorphia (the Tasmanian devil, the numbat, thylacines, quolls, dunnarts and others) ****** Order Peramelemorphia (bilbies, bandicoots and rainforest bandicoots) ****** Order
Diprotodontia Diprotodontia (, from Greek language, Greek "two forward teeth") is the largest extant order (biology), order of marsupials, with about 155 species, including the kangaroos, Wallaby, wallabies, Phalangeriformes, possums, koala, wombats, and many ...
(koalas, wombats, diprotodonts, possums, cuscuses, sugar gliders, kangaroos and others) ****** Order Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles and closely related extinct families of marsupials) ******* Family Notoryctidae (living and extinct marsupial mole genera) ******** Genus Notoryctes (only genus of marsupial moles with living species) ********* Species '' Notoryctes typhlops'' (southern marsupial mole) ********* Species '' Notoryctes caurinus'' (northern marsupial mole)


Interaction with humans


Pelts

Moles' pelts have a velvety texture not found in surface animals. Surface-dwelling animals tend to have longer fur with a natural tendency for the nap to lie in a particular direction, but to facilitate their burrowing lifestyle, mole pelts are short and very dense and have no particular direction to the nap. This makes it easy for moles to move backwards underground, as their fur is not "brushed the wrong way". The leather is extremely soft and supple. Queen Alexandra, the wife of Edward VII of the United Kingdom, ordered a mole-fur garment to start a fashion that would create a demand for mole fur, thereby turning what had been a serious pest problem in
Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
into a lucrative industry for the country. Hundreds of pelts are cut into rectangles and sewn together to make a coat. The natural color is taupe, (derived from the French noun ''taupe'' meaning mole) but it is readily dyed any color. The term " moleskin" for a tough cotton fabric is in common use today.


Pest status: extermination and humane options

Moles are considered agricultural pests in some countries, while in others, such as
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
, they are a protected species, but may be killed with a permit. Problems cited as caused by moles include contamination of silage with soil particles, making it unpalatable to
livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...
, the covering of pasture with fresh soil reducing its size and yield, damage to agricultural machinery by the exposure of stones, damage to young plants through disturbance of the soil, weed invasion of pasture through exposure of freshly tilled soil, and damage to drainage systems and watercourses. Other species such as weasels and
vole Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s may use mole tunnels to gain access to enclosed areas or plant roots. Moles burrow and raise molehills, killing parts of lawns. They can undermine plant roots, indirectly causing damage or death. Moles do not eat plant roots. Moles are controlled with traps such as mole-catchers, smoke bombs, and poisons such as calcium carbide, which produces
acetylene Acetylene (Chemical nomenclature, systematic name: ethyne) is a chemical compound with the formula and structure . It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne. This colorless gas is widely used as a fuel and a chemical building block. It is u ...
gas to drive moles away. Strychnine was also used for this purpose in the past. The most common method now is Phostoxin or Talunex tablets. They contain aluminium phosphide and are inserted in the mole tunnels, where they turn into
phosphine Phosphine (IUPAC name: phosphane) is a colorless, flammable, highly toxic compound with the chemical formula , classed as a pnictogen hydride. Pure phosphine is odorless, but technical grade samples have a highly unpleasant odor like rotting ...
gas (not be confused with phosgene gas). More recently, high-grade
nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a Nonmetal (chemistry), nonmetal and the lightest member of pnictogen, group 15 of the periodic table, often called the Pnictogen, pnictogens. ...
gas has proven effective at killing moles, with the added advantage of having no polluting effect to the environment. Other common defensive measures include cat litter and
blood meal Blood meal is a dry, inert powder made from blood, used as a high-nitrogen organic fertilizer and a high protein animal feed. By weight, it is generally 12% nitrogen with trace amounts (≤1%) of phosphorus and potassium. It is one of the hig ...
, to repel the mole, or smoking its burrow. Devices are also sold to trap the mole in its burrow, when one sees the "mole hill" moving and therefore knows where the animal is, and then stabbing it. Other humane options are also possible including humane traps that capture the mole alive so it may be transported elsewhere. In many contexts including ordinary gardens, the damage caused by moles to lawns is mostly visual, and it is possible instead of extermination to simply remove the earth of the molehills as they appear, leaving their permanent galleries for the moles to continue their existence underground. However, when the tunnels are near the surface in soft ground or after heavy rain, they may collapse, leaving (small) unsightly furrows in the lawn.


Meat

William Buckland, known for eating every animal he could, opined that mole meat tasted vile.


Archaeology

Moles can inadvertently help archaeologists by bringing small artifacts to the surface through their digging. By examining molehills for sherds and other small objects, archaeologists can find evidence of human habitation.


See also

* Molecatcher


Notes


References


External links


UK Government DEFRA paper on control the European mole

British Traditional Molecatchers Register
{{Authority control Agricultural pests Body plans Mammal common names