The Yao people () or Dao () is a classification for various ethnic minorities in China and Vietnam. Their majority branch is also known as Mien. They originated in the areas around Changsha, which today is the capital of Hunan province. They speak a branch of the Hmong-Mien family of languages and share a strong genetic connection to the Hmong peoples. They are believed to have diverged from the Hmong around 5,800 years ago. They are one of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China and reside in the mountainous southwest and south of the country. They also form one of the 54

ethnic groups An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, rel ...

officially recognized by Vietnam. They numbered 2,796,003 in the 2010 Chinese census and 891,151 in the 2019 Vietnamese census. An estimated 60,000 Yao of the Iu Mien branch reside in the United States, mostly in the Western coastal states.

History

China

Origin myth

The origins of the Yao can be traced back two millennia to

Hunan Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...

around the Dongting Lake region. According to a Yao tale, the Chinese Emperor Gao Xin was saved from an enemy chieftain by his faithful dog, Pan Hu. As a reward, Pan Hu was turned into a man and given the emperor's daughter in marriage. The descendants of the two became the Yao people. This tale was used as a basis for their connection to the Mo Yao, a group of highlanders who were exempt from forced labour during the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

(618–907). Between 200 BCE and 900 CE, the Yao migrated into mountainous areas to the south of the

Yangtze River The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...

Historical records

As the Yao lacked their own written language until recently, much of what is known about their ancient history comes from ancient Han Chinese sources. In the Book of the Later Han Dynasty (25–225 AD), they are described as "liking five-colored clothes", "going barefoot" and being "colorfully dressed".

Conquest

The Yao were conquered by the Han Chinese between the 10th and 13th centuries. However they were covered under a loose reign system known as the

Jimi system The Jimi system () or Jimifuzhou () was an autonomous administrative and political organization system used in China between the 7th century and 10th century. It should not be confused with the Chinese tributary system. The term "Jimi" was first s ...

Tusi ''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain ...

. The local chieftains collected tribute and taxes from their own people and paid taxes to the emperor. During the Ming and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

dynasties, rule over the Yao was tightened. Ming and Qing authorities sent in their own bureaucrats to directly collect taxes, supplanting the role of the Yao chieftains. The Yao and

Miao people Miao is a word that the Chinese use to designate some ethnic minority groups living in southern China and Mainland Southeast Asia. Miao is thus officially recognized by the Chinese government as one of the largest ethnic minority groups that h ...

were among the rebels during the

Miao Rebellions There have been several rebellions among the Miao people (also known as the Hmong) in Chinese history: *Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty (14th–15th centuries) *Bozhou rebellion (1589–1600) *Miao Rebellion (1735–36) *Miao Rebellion (1795– ...

against the Ming dynasty during the 1370s and 1449. Conflict drove the Yao further south into the highlands between Hunan and

Guizhou ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province , map_caption = Map s ...

to the north and

Guangdong ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...

and

Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...

to the south, and stretching into Eastern

Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...

. Some left for Southeast Asia. Around 1890, the

government started taking action against Yao in Northwestern Guangdong. After the

Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...

's Communist Party won the civil war in the late 1940s, the Yao benefited greatly from the ideology of equality and were able to access education, becoming part of the regional and national elite. They were often recruited as specialists to assist with the ethnic identification program within the framework of a large unified China.

Laotian Civil War

During the

Laotian Civil War The Laotian Civil War was waged between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government from 23 May 1959 to 2 December 1975. The Kingdom of Laos was a covert Theatre (warfare), theater during the Vietnam War with both sides receiving heavy ...

, the Yao tribes of Laos had a good relationship with U.S. forces and were dubbed to be an "efficient friendly force". They fought in favour of the (South Vietnamese) government against the communists. This relationship caused the new communist Laotian government to target Yao tribal groups once the war was over. This triggered further immigration into

Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...

, where the tribes would be put into camps along the Thailand-Laos border.

Immigration to the United States

After obtaining

refugee A refugee, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), is a person "forced to flee their own country and seek safety in another country. They are unable to return to their own country because of feared persecution as ...

status from the Thai government, and with the help of the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...

, many Yao people were able to obtain sponsorship into the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

(although many remain in Thailand). Most of the Yao who have immigrated to the United States have settled along the Western part of the US, mainly in central and northern

California California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...

such as Visalia,

Oakland Oakland is a city in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area in the U.S. state of California. It is the county seat and most populous city in Alameda County, with a population of 440,646 in 2020. A major West Coast port, Oakland is ...

, Oroville, Redding, Richmond,

Sacramento Sacramento ( or ; ; ) is the capital city of the U.S. state of California and the seat of Sacramento County. Located at the confluence of the Sacramento and American Rivers in Northern California's Sacramento Valley, Sacramento's 2020 p ...

, but also in parts of

Oregon Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...

Portland Portland most commonly refers to: *Portland, Oregon, the most populous city in the U.S. state of Oregon *Portland, Maine, the most populous city in the U.S. state of Maine *Isle of Portland, a tied island in the English Channel Portland may also r ...

, Salem, and Beaverton as well as the state of Washington in

Seattle Seattle ( ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Washington and in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. With a population of 780,995 in 2024, it is the 18th-most populous city in the United States. The city is the cou ...

and Renton. See Mien American for those identified as Mien.

Culture, society, and economy

Yao society is traditionally

patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...

, with sons inheriting from their fathers. The Yao follow

patrilocal residence In social anthropology, patrilocal residence or patrilocality, also known as virilocal residence or virilocality, are terms referring to the social system in which a married couple resides with or near the husband's parents. The concept of loca ...

."Yao" in ''Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China'' (ed. James Stuart Olson:

Greenwood Press Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. (GPG) was an educational and academic publisher (middle school through university level) which was part of ABC-Clio. Since 2021, ABC-Clio and its suite of imprints, including GPG, are collectively imprints of B ...

, 1998), p. 374. Polygyny was allowed until it was banned in China in the 1950s. Adoption was common among the wealthy. The Yao people have been farmers for over a thousand years, mostly rice cultivation through plowing, although a few practice

slash-and-burn Slash-and-burn agriculture is a form of shifting cultivation that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a Field (agriculture), field called a swidden. The method begins by cutting down the trees and woody p ...

agriculture. Where the Yao live nearby forested regions, they also engage in hunting. During the Southern Song (1127–1279), an imperial Chinese observer, Zhou Qufei, described the Yao as wearing distinctive fine blue clothing produced using

indigo InterGlobe Aviation Limited (d/b/a IndiGo), is an India, Indian airline headquartered in Gurgaon, Haryana, India. It is the largest List of airlines of India, airline in India by passengers carried and fleet size, with a 64.1% domestic market ...

. The Yao celebrate their ''Pan Wang'' (King Pan) festival annually on the sixteenth day of the tenth

lunar month In lunar calendars, a lunar month is the time between two successive syzygies of the same type: new moons or full moons. The precise definition varies, especially for the beginning of the month. Variations In Shona, Middle Eastern, and Euro ...

. The festival celebrates the mythical original story of the Yao people, and has evolved "into a happy holiday for the Yao to celebrate a good harvest and worship their ancestors."

Religion

The description of Yao religion is similar to the definition of

Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...

as described by Arthur Wolf and Steve Sangren. Like the Han, the Yao engage in patrilineal ancestor worship, celebrate lunar new year, and recognize a set a 18 gods and goddesses, mostly of Han Chinese origin. The Yao had shaman priests as part of their community who engaged in activity such as exorcism, spiritual communication, and divination using chicken bones or bamboo sticks.

Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...

has historically been important to the Yao. Jinag Yingliang, in a 1948 study, argued that Yao religion was characterized by (1) a process of Han Chinese-influenced Daoisation (); (2) the endurance of pre-Daoist

folk religion Folk religion, traditional religion, or vernacular religion comprises, according to religious studies and folkloristics, various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized religion. ...

; and (3) some Buddhist beliefs. Scholar Zhang Youjun takes issue with claims of "strong Buddhist influence" on the Yao, arguing that "although Yao ritual texts contain Buddhist expression, the Yao do not believe in Buddhism at all. They are resolutely Taoist."

Groups and languages

There are several distinct groups within the Yao nationality, and they speak several different languages, The Iu Mien comprise 70% of the Yao population. *

Hmong–Mien languages The Hmong–Mien languages (also known as Miao–Yao and rarely as Yangtzean) are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They are spoken in mountainous areas of southern China, including Guizhou, Hunan, Yunn ...

The Mien speak

Mienic languages The Mienic or Yao languages are spoken by the Yao people of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Some of the Yao peoples speak Hmongic languages (Miao); these are called '' Bunu''. A small population of Yao people in Jinxiu Yao Autonomous Co ...

(), including: *** Mian–Jin languages **** Iu Mien, 2,172,000 speakers (1,699,750 in China, 350,000 in Vietnam, 40,000 in Thailand, 20,250 in Laos, 60,000 in the United States, 2,000 in France) **** Kim Mun (also known as Lanten), more than 300,000 Yao people **** Biao Mon, 20,000 speakers *** Dzao Min, 60,000 speakers *** Biao Min, 43,000 speakers **

Hmongic languages The Hmongic languages, also known as Miao languages ( zh, s=苗语, p=Miáoyǔ), include the various languages spoken by the Miao people (such as Hmong, Hmu, and Xong). Hmongic languages also include various languages spoken by non- Mienic-spe ...

*** Bunu languages *** Pa-Hng *** Younuo *** Kiong Nai * Lakkja language (a Tai–Kadai language) * Chinese ** about 500,000 Yao speak Chinese dialects In addition to China, Yao also live in northern

Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...

(where they are called ''Dao''), northern

Laos Laos, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR), is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and ...

, and

Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...

. There are around 60,000 Yao in northern

, where they are one of the six main

hill tribes Hill people, also referred to as mountain people, is a general term for people who live in the hills and mountains. This includes all rugged land above and all land (including plateaus) above elevation. The climate is generally harsh, with s ...

. The lowland-living Lanten of Laos, who speak Kim Mun, and the highland-living Iu Mien of Laos are two different Yao groups. There are also many Iu Mien Americans, mainly refugees from the highlands of

. The Iu Mien do not call themselves "Yao". Not all "Yao" are Iu Mien. A group of 61,000 people on

Hainan Hainan is an island provinces of China, province and the southernmost province of China. It consists of the eponymous Hainan Island and various smaller islands in the South China Sea under the province's administration. The name literally mean ...

speak the Yao language Kim Mun; 139,000 speakers of Kim Mun live in other parts of China (

and

), and 174,500 live in Laos and Vietnam. The Bunu people call themselves ''Nuox'' , ''Buod nuox'' , ''Dungb nuox'' , or their official name ''Yaof zuf'' . Only 258,000 of the 439,000 people categorised as Bunu in the 1982 census speak Bunu; 100,000 speak the Tai–Kadai

Zhuang languages The Zhuang languages (; autonym: , , pre-1982: , Sawndip: 話僮, from ''vah'', 'language' and ''Cuengh'', 'Zhuang'; ) are the more than a dozen Tai languages spoken by the Zhuang people of Southern China in the province of Guangxi and adjace ...

, and 181,000 speak Chinese and the Tai–Kadai

Bouyei language The Bouyei language ( autonym: Haausqyaix, also spelled ''Buyi'', ''Buyei'' or ''Puyi''; ; or ) is a language spoken by the Bouyei ethnic group of Southern Guizhou Province, China. Classified as a member of the Northern Tai group in the Tai l ...

Mao (2004)

Mao Zongwu (2004:7–8) gives a detailed list of various Yao

endonyms An endonym (also known as autonym ) is a common, name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate them ...

(i.e., self-designated names) and the Chinese names of various groups and clans associated with them. Endonyms are written in the

International Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation ...

with numerical Chao tones. *Autonym ' 勉 or '' '' 优勉: Pangu Yao 盘古瑶, Pan Yao 盘瑶, Panhu Yao 盘瓠瑶, Trans-Mountain / Guoshan Yao 过山瑶, Large-Board / Daban Yao 大板瑶, Small-Board / Xiaoban Yao 小板瑶, Board / Ban Yao 板瑶, Top-Board / Dingban Yao 顶板瑶, Sharp-Headed / Jiantou Yao 尖头瑶, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao 平头瑶, Red-Head / Hongtou Yao 红头瑶, Arrow-Pole / Jian'gan Yao 箭杆瑶, Cattle-Horn Yao / Niujiao 牛角瑶, Tu Yao 土瑶 (in

Hezhou Hezhou () is a prefecture-level city in the northeast of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. Geography and climate Hezhou is located in northeastern Guangxi. It borders Hunan to the north and Guangdong to the east. ...

, Guangxi), Native / Bendi Yao 本地瑶, Flowery / Hua Yao 花瑶 (in Yangshuo County, Guangxi), Ao Yao 坳瑶, Zheng Yao 正瑶, Liang Yao 粮瑶 *Autonym '' '' 金门 or ' 甘迪门: Blue-Indigo / Landian Yao 蓝靛瑶, Shanzi Yao 山子瑶, Flowery-Headed / Huatou Yao 花头瑶, Sand / Sha Yao 沙瑶, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao 平头瑶, Bazi Yao 坝子瑶 *Autonym ' 标曼 or ' 史门: Min Yao 民瑶, "Four Great" Min Yao 四大民瑶 *Autonym '' '' 标敏 or ' 交公勉: East Mountain / Dongshan Yao 东山瑶 (in Quanzhou County, Guangxi), Dog-Headed / Goutou Yao 狗头瑶 *Autonym '' '' 藻勉: Bapai Yao 八排瑶 *Autonym ' 优念, ' 炳多优, or '' '' 珊介: Red Yao 红瑶 (in Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Guangxi), Plains / Pingdi Yao 平地瑶 *Autonym '' '' 布努: Beilou Yao 背篓瑶, Beilong Yao 背陇瑶, West Mountain / Xishan Yao 西山瑶, East Mountain Yao / Dongshan 东山瑶 (in

Bama Yao Autonomous County Bama Yao Autonomous County ( Zhuang: ,) is a county in Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Hechi City. The residents of Bama County have a reputation for longevity, and Bama has been the focus of studies from geriatricians nationwid ...

, Guangxi), Tudi Yao 土地瑶, Tu Yao 土瑶 (in Pingguo County and Mashan County, Guangxi), Mountain / Shan Yao 山瑶, Man Yao 蛮瑶, East Valley / Dongnong Yao 东弄瑶, West Valley / Xinong Yao 西弄瑶, Fan Yao 反瑶, Anding Yao 安定瑶, White Yao 白瑶, Black Yao 黑瑶, Black-Trouser / Heiku Yao 黑裤瑶, Long-Shirt / Changshan Yao 长衫瑶 *Autonym '' '' 瑙格劳 or '' '' 包诺: Siting Yao 四亭瑶, Situan Yao 四团瑶 *Autonym '' '' 炯奈: Hualan Yao 花蓝瑶 *Autonym '' '' 巴哼: Dog Yao 狗瑶, Eight-Surname / Baxing Yao 八姓瑶, Red Yao 红瑶 (in Liping and Congjiang Counties of Guizhou; Rongshui Miao Autonomous County and Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County of Guangxi), Wood Yao 木瑶 *Autonym '' '' 唔奈: Flowery Yao 花瑶 (in

Longhui Longhui County () is a counties of China, county and the List of County-level divisions of Hunan by population, 6th most populous county-level division in the Provinces of China, Province of Hunan, China; it is under the administration of Shaoyang ...

, Dongkou, Chenxi, and

Xupu County Xupu County () is a county of Hunan Province, China. It is under the administration of Huaihua Prefecturel-level City. Located on the west central Hunan, the county is bordered to the north by Yuanling County, to the northeast by Anhua County ...

and the Tongdao Dong Autonomous County of Hunan) *Autonym '' '' 优诺: Red Yao 红瑶 *Autonym '' '' 拉珈: Tea Mountain / Chashan Yao 茶山瑶

Plains Yao

Groups considered to be "Plains Yao" (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶) include: *Autonym Bingduoyou 炳多尤 (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶, Dainaijiang 代奈江): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County 江华 of Hunan; Gongcheng 恭城, Fuchuan 富川, Zhongshan 钟山, and Lingui 临桂 counties of Guangxi *Autonym Yeheni 爷贺尼 (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County 江华, Hunan (''Jianghua County Gazetteer''). The Yeheni speak a divergent Chinese dialect. It is spoken in Taoxu Town 涛圩镇 and Helukou Town 河路口镇 in Jianghua County, Hunan. *Autonym Younian 优念 (Pinghua-speaking Red Yao 平话红瑶; '): in Longsheng 龙胜 and Guanyang 灌阳 counties of Guangxi. According to Chen Qiguang (2013:30), the ' number about 10,000 speakers in Sishui 泗水, Madi 马堤, Mengshan 孟山, Jiangliu 江柳, and other locations of

Longsheng County Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County ( zh, s=龙胜各族自治县, t=龍勝各族自治縣, p=Lóngshèng Gèzú Zìzhìxiàn; ; usually referred to as "Longsheng County" ) is a county in the northeast of Guangxi, China, bordering Hu ...

. *Autonym Shanjie 珊介 (Shanzi Yao 山仔瑶): in Fangcheng 防城, Guangxi *Autonym Youjia 优嘉 (Yaojia 瑶家): in

Guanyang County Guanyang County (; Zhuang language: ) is a county in the northeast of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, bordering Hunan province to the east. It is under the administration of Guilin Guilin (Standard Zhuang: ''Gveilinz''), posta ...

灌阳, Guangxi *Jingdong Yao 景东县瑶族 (autonym: Lewu people 乐舞人):

Jingdong County Jingdong Yi Autonomous County (; ) is an autonomous county in southern Yunnan Province, China. It is the northernmost county-level division of the prefecture-level city of Pu'er. Jingdong borders Nanhua County, Chuxiong City and Shuangbai Cou ...

景东彝族自治县, Yunnan. According to the ''Jingdong County Gazetteer'' (1994:519), ethnic Yao numbered 3,889 individuals in 1990, and lived mainly in Chaqing 岔箐 and Dasongshu 大松树 of Taizhong 太忠乡.

Vietnam

Tim Doling (2010:82–83) lists the following Yao (spelled ''Dao'' in the

Vietnamese alphabet The Vietnamese alphabet (, ) is the modern writing script for the Vietnamese language. It uses the Latin script based on Romance languages like French language, French, originally developed by Francisco de Pina (1585–1625), a missionary from P ...

) subgroups in

northern Vietnam Northern Vietnam or '' Tonkin'' () is one of three geographical regions in Vietnam. It consists of three geographic sub-regions: the Northwest (Vùng Tây Bắc), the Northeast (Vùng Đông Bắc), and the Red River Delta (Đồng Bằng Sôn ...

.Doling, Tim. 2010. Mountains and Ethnic Minorities: North West Việt Nam. Thế Giới Publishers. *Mienic groups ** Iu Mien: Black Dao of Dien Bien and Lai Chau; Red Dao of southern Lao Cai, Yen Bai, and Son La ** Kim Mien: Dao Tà Pán 大板瑶 (Dao Đại Bản, Dao Coóc Ngáng, Dao SừngNguyễn Mạnh Hùng. 2013. ''Lễ cưới người Dao Nga Hoàng''. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản văn hóa thông tin.) of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Yen Bai; Red Dao of northern and eastern Lao Cai; Hongtou Red Dao 红头瑶 in northern Lai Chau ** Kiem Mien: Red Dao of Sa Pa ** Kam Mien: Coin Dao of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Tuyen Quang, Thai Nguyen, and Bac Can **

Kem Mien Kem or KEM may refer to: People *Kem (singer) (born 1969), R&B musician *Kem Cetinay (born 1996), English television personality *Kem Smith, American politician Places *Kem (river), a river in the Republic of Karelia, Russia *Kem (Yenisey), ...

: Coin Dao of Hoa Binh and Son La ** Quần Chẹt Mien: Hoa Binh, Son La, Tuyen Quang, Bac Can (also called the Dao Nga Hoàng, Dao Sơn Đầu) ** Lô Gang Mien: Dao Lô Gang and Dao Đầu Trọc of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Lang Son, and Mong Cai *'' Kim Mun'' groups **Kim Mun: Dao Làn Tiển 蓝靛瑶 (including the Dao Tuyển, Dao Áo Dài, and Dao Đầu Bằng) **Kim Meun: Dao Quần Trắng 白裤瑶 and Dao Thanh Y 青衣瑶 According to Doling (2010), only Kim Mun, Kim Mien, and Lô Gang may be found outside Vietnam. Nguyen (2004:14–15, 128) lists Đại Bản, Tiểu Bản, Khố Bạch, and Làn Tiẻn as the 4 primary subdivisions of ethnic Yao in Vietnam. * Đại Bản **Dao Đỏ (''Hùng Thầu Dào, Dao Coóc Ngáng, Dao Quý Lâm''): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen **Dao Quần Chẹt (''Dao Sơn Đầu, Dao Tam Đảo, Dao Nga Hoàng''): located in Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Phu Tho, Vinh Yen, Son La, Yen Bai **Dao Thanh Phán (''Dao Coóc Mùn, Dao Đội Ván, Dao Lô Gang, Dao Dụ Kiùn, Dao Thêu''): located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Bac Giang * Tiểu Bản **Dao Tiền (''Dao Đeo Tiền''): located in Hoa Binh, Phu Tho, Son La, Tuyen Quang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan * Khố Bạch **Dao Quần Trắng: located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang (known as ''Dao Họ'' in Yen Bai, Lao Cai) * Làn Tiẻn **Dao Thanh Y: located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Giang, Quang Ninh **Dao Áo Dài (''Dao Tuyển, Dao Chàm, Dao Slán Chỉ''): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Bac Kan

Distribution

Yao peoples are distributed primarily in the provinces

, and

of China. Ethnic Yao are also found in Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand.

In China

By county

;County-level distribution of the Yao, 2000 Chinese Census (Only counties or county equivalents with more than 0.1% of county population are shown.)

Guizhou

The Yao of

are found in the following locations (''Guizhou Province Gazetteer'' 贵州志 2002).Guizhou Province Gazetteer: Ethnic Gazetteer ��州省志. 民族志(2002). Guiyang: Guizhou Ethnic Publishing House ��州民族出版社 *

Libo County Libo County () is a county of southern Guizhou province, China, bordering Guangxi to the south. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. Geography The county is located in the remote southeastern corner o ...

: townships of Yaoshan 瑶山, Yaolu 瑶麓, and Yao'ai 瑶埃 *

Shiqian County Shiqian County () is a county under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Tongren, in the northeast of Guizhou Province, China. The government is located in Tangshan. Administrative divisions Shiqian County is divided into 3 subd ...

(2,522 people): 9 Yao villages including Leijiatun 雷家屯 and Wurongguan 乌荣关 of Beita Township 北塔乡, and Shuiwei Village of Huaqiao Township 花桥乡水尾村 *

Wangmo County Wangmo County () ( Bouyei: Weangzmox xianq) is a county in the southwest of Guizhou province, China, bordering Guangxi to the southeast. It is under the administration of the Qianxinan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. Administrative divisio ...

: the 4 villages of Shangyoumai 上油迈, Xiaoyoumai 下油迈, Xinzhai 新寨, and Jiaxian 加现 in Youmai Township 油迈瑶族乡 *

Majiang County Majiang County () is a county of southeast-central Guizhou province, China. It is the westernmost county-level division The administrative divisions of China have consisted of several levels since 1412, due to mainland China's large populat ...

: 23 Yao villages in Longshan Township 龙山乡, including Heba 河坝 (with 6,474 people) *

Liping County Liping County () ( Dong language: Liic bienc) is a county in the southeast of Guizhou province, China, bordering Hunan to the east and Guangxi to the southeast. It is part of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture. History The cou ...

**Shunhua Township 顺化瑶族乡 (1,316 people in 1992): Gongcun 贡村, Gaoka 高卡, Yibuwan 已补晚, Yishu 已树; Gaozizhai of Gaoshu Village 高抒村高仔寨 **Leidong Township 雷洞瑶族水族乡 (1,576 people in 1992): Jinchengzhai 金城寨 and Yibizhai 已毕寨 of Jincheng Village 金城村, Sanshanzhai of Xilao Village 戏劳村三山寨; Cenpangzhai 岑胖寨, Nongbozhai 弄播寨, Yunnanzhai 云南寨 *

Congjiang County Congjiang County () is a county in Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou, China. It is divided by the Duliu River (), the upper reaches of the Liu River, and borders Guangxi to the south. It is an important transit point as ...

: 2 subgroups of Red Yao 红瑶 and Pan Yao 盘瑶 **''Red Yao'' 红瑶 ***Cuili Township 翠里瑶族壮族乡: Gaomang 高忙, Xinzhai 新寨, Shujiawan 舒家湾, Wucai 乌菜, Jiage 架格, Baiyanchong 白岩冲, Raojia 饶家 ***Jiabang Township 加榜乡: Dazhou 达州村 **''Pan Yao'' 盘瑶 ***Xishan Township 西山镇: Cengang 岑杠, Gaojiao 高脚, Qiuka 秋卡 ***Douli Township 斗里乡: Dengmian 登面, Changka 长卡, Gaoliu 高柳, Beitong 碑痛 ***Xiutang Township 秀塘壮族乡: Dage 打格, Yusha 雨沙, Jiujia 九甲, Baidao 摆倒, Wubu 乌布, Xilin 细林 ***Zaibian Township 宰便镇: Zezhui 怎追 ***Xiajiang Township 下江镇: Huanglang 黄郎 ***Yongli Township 拥里乡: Dashan 大山, Laozhai 老寨, Gangbian 刚边, Huangnijing 黄泥井 ***Donglang Township 东郎乡: Baidui 摆堆 * Rongjiang County **Tashi Township 塔石瑶族水族乡 (2,979 people): Zedong 怎东村, Zaiyong 宰勇村, Dangxiang 党相村, Tashi 塔石村, Dangdiao 党调村, Zeba 怎贝村, Qiaoyang 乔央村. **Pingjiang Township 平江乡: Jijiaoba 鸡脚坝, Balu 巴鲁 **Pingyong Township 平永镇: Sanbuqiao 三步桥, Qiaohai 乔亥 **Sanjiang Township 三江乡: Wuhong 乌洪 **Liangwang Township 两汪乡: Cen'ao 岑熬 **Pingyou Township 平尤乡: Shuangxikou 双溪口, Bakai 八开 *

Leishan County Leishan (, Hmu language:''Zangx Xongx'') is a county in the east of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture. More than 90% of population are ethnic Hmu (Miao subgroup). Admin ...

**Dadi Township 达地镇: Longtanggou 龙塘沟, Paisong 排松, Pingzhai 平寨, Laozhai 老寨, Beilue 背略, Pangjia 庞家, Jieli 皆力, Gaolue 高略, Tongwu 同乌, Yeliao 也辽, Xiaowu 小巫, Baimizhai 白米寨, Hebian 河边 **Liuwu Township 柳乌乡: Liuwu 柳乌 **Qiaosang Township 乔桑乡: Xiagaojian 下高枧 **Gulu Township 固鲁乡: Nanping 南屏 * Danzhai County: Pailu 排路, Yangwu 杨武, Jiapei 加配 *

Jianhe County Jianhe County ( zh, s=剑河县 , t=劍河縣 , p=Jiànhé Xiàn) is in the southeast of Guizhou Province, China. Under the administration of Qiandongnan Prefecture, it is from the provincial capital of Guiyang, and from Kaili City, the prefect ...

: Zhandi Village, Taiyong Township 太拥乡展迪村 * Sandu County: Wuxia 巫不, Pu'an 普安, Jiaxiong 甲雄, Shangjiang 上江, Niuchang 牛场 *

Luodian County Luodian County () (Bouyei language: Lachos xianq) is a county under the administration of Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in the south of Guizhou province, China, bordering Guangxi to the south. The climate in the area is humid subt ...

: Ankang 安抗 of Luotuo 罗妥; Naji 纳吉, Nakao 纳考, Nanao 纳闹, Luoyang 罗羊, Longping 龙坪, Bianyang 边阳 of Fengting 风亭 *

Ziyun County Ziyun Miao and Buyei Autonomous County (; Bouyei language, Bouyei: ) is a county in the southwest of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Anshun. Administrative divisions Ziyun is divided into 3 ...

(297 people): Tangguan Village, Maoping Township 茅坪塘贯村 * Guanling County (189 people) The Yao of Guizhou have various autonyms, such as: *' (董蒙), in Yaoshan 瑶山, Libo County. The

Buyi people The Bouyei (also spelled ''Puyi'', ''Buyei'' and ''Buyi''; , or "Puzhong", "Burao", "Puman"; ; ) are an ethnic group living in Southern Mainland China. Numbering 3.5 million, they are the 10th largest of the 56 List of ethnic groups in China, ...

call them '. *' (努侯), in Yaolu 瑶麓, Libo County. The Shui people call them '. *' (东蒙), in Yao'ai 瑶埃, Libo County. The Buyi people call them '. *' (满), in Youmai 油迈, Wangmo County. *' (容棉), in Rongjiang, Leishan, Danzhai, Jianhe, Congjiang, and Sandu Counties.

Hunan

The Jianghua Yao Autonomous County is the only Yao-designated autonomous county in Hunan. Some subgroups of ethnic Yao in Hunan include: * Pan Yao 盘瑶 (Mian 勉): in Jianghua, Chenxian, Lanshan, Ningyuan, Daoxian, Guiyang, Lingling, Chengbu, Chenxi, Xinning; speak a Mienic language. * Guoshan Yao 过山瑶: in Jianghua, Lanshan, Ningyuan; speak a Mienic language. * Huajiao Yao 花脚瑶 (Wunai 唔奈): in Longhui, Tongdao, Xupu, Chenxi; speak a Hmongic language. * Badong Yao 八峒瑶 (Batong Yao 八垌瑶): in Xinning. The Badong Yao speak an endangered Sinitic language. It is spoken in the villages of Huangyandong 黄岩峒, Malindong 麻林峒, and Dazhendong 大圳峒 in Huangjin Ethnic Yao Township 黄金瑶族乡, Xinning County. * Pingdi Yao 平地瑶 (Bingduoyou 炳多尤): in Jianghua, Jiangyong, and speak a Chinese dialect. * Qixing Yao 七姓瑶: in Chenxi, and speak a Chinese dialect. The ''Hunan Province Gazetteer'' (1997) gives the following autonyms for various peoples classified by the Chinese government as Yao. *' 尤棉: in much of Xiangxi Prefecture *' 董本尤: in Xintian County, Yizhang County, Changning County *' 谷岗尤: in Lanshan County, Jianghua County *' 土尤 *' 藻敏: in Shuangpai County, Dao County, Ningyuan County *Donglixiao 洞里销: in Xinning County; also called Bunu 布努, Donglixiao 峒里俏, or Dong Yao 峒瑶 (''Xinning County Gazetteer'' 2009). Their language is called Donghua 峒话. *' 唔奈: in Longhui County, Xupu County *' 炳多尤 (also called Dainaijiang 代奈江): in Jianghua County, Jiangyong County Tan Xiaoping (2012) also gives the following autonyms for Yao subgroups of Jiangyong County. *' 勉 *' 优勉 *' 壹勉 *' 优尼 *' 炳多优 The Yao of Shaoyang Prefecture are found in the following locations (''Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer'' 1997). Population statistics are from 1990. * Xinning County (12,756 Yao persons): Malin 麻林乡, Huangjin 黄金乡, Jingwei 靖位乡 (in Yuanshui 源水瑶族村) *

Dongkou County Dongkou County () is a county in the Province of Hunan, China. It is under the administration of Shaoyang City. Located in west-central Hunan, the county is bordered to the northeast by Longhui County, to the northwest by Xupu County and Hongji ...

(8,473 Yao persons): Naxi 𦰡溪乡 (那溪乡), Changtang 长塘乡, Dawu 大屋乡; Yuexi 月溪, Zhaping 渣坪, Tongshan 桐山 * Longhui County (6,151 Yao persons): Huxingshan 虎形山乡, Mao'ao 茅坳乡, Xiaoshajiang 小沙江镇, Qingshan 青山, Matangshan 麻塘山 * Chengbu County (2,276 Yao persons): Lanrong 兰蓉, Qingyuan 清源, Dayang 大阳, Tingping 汀坪, Pengdong 蓬洞, Yangmei 杨梅 * Suining County (1,641 Yao persons): Jinta 金趿, Shuikou 水口 The ''Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer'' (1997) reports that the Yao of Shaoyang Prefecture, Hunan speak the following languages. *''

'' ** Longhui County 隆回: Huxingshan 虎形山, Mao'ao 茅坳, Xiaoshajiang 小沙江 **

洞口: Dawu 大屋, Changtang 长塘 ** Chengbu County 城步: Qingyuan 清源, Lanrong 兰蓉 *'' Hmongic languages''?: Huangjin 黄金 and Malin 麻林 of Xinning County *'' Southern Dong dialect'': Naxi 𦰡溪 (那溪),

and Lianmin 联民, Suining County The following population statistics of ethnic Yao in Hunan are from the 1990 Chinese census, as given in the ''Hunan Province Gazetteer'' (1997).

Written languages

After 1982, the Guangxi Nationality Institute and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences together created a new Yao writing system which was unified with the research results of the Yao-American scholar Yuēsè Hòu (

Traditional Chinese A tradition is a system of beliefs or behaviors (folk custom) passed down within a group of people or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common examp ...

: 約瑟·候/

Simplified Chinese Simplification, Simplify, or Simplified may refer to: Mathematics Simplification is the process of replacing a mathematical expression by an equivalent one that is simpler (usually shorter), according to a well-founded ordering. Examples include: ...

: 约瑟·候). The writing system was finalized in 1984 in Ruyuan County (乳源瑤族自治縣),

, which included Chinese professors Pan Chengqian (盤承乾/盘承乾), Deng Fanggui (鄧方貴/邓方贵), Liu Baoyuan (劉保元/刘保元), Su Defu (蘇德富/苏德富) and Yauz Mengh Borngh; Chinese government officials; Mien Americans Sengfo Chao (Zhao Fuming), Kao Chiem Chao (Zhao Youcai), and Chua Meng Chao; David T. Lee. American linguist Herbert C. Purnell developed a curriculum and workshop presentations on language learning in East and Southeast Asia, as well as Yao Seng Deng from

. The US delegation took the new writing system to the Iu Mien community in the United States where it was adopted with a vote of 78 to 7 by a conference of Mien American community leader

This writing system based on the Latin alphabet was designed to be pan-dialectal; it distinguishes 30 syllable initials, 121 syllable finals and eight tones. For an example of how the unified alphabet is used to write Iu Mien, a common Yao language, see

Iu Mien language The Iu Mien language (, ; zh, 勉語 or ; or ) is the language spoken by the Iu Mien people in China (where they are considered a constituent group of the Yao peoples), Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and, more recently, the United States in diaspora ...

. There is a separate written standard for Bunu, since it is from the Hmong/Miao side, rather than the Mien/Yao side, of the Miao–Yao language family. Some people think that a variety of Yao is, or was, written in Nüshu, an indigenous script in Southern part of Hunan Province in China. But this connection between Yao language and Nüshu is disputed, because Nüshu more likely recorded local Chinese dialect which might be also known by Yao people in Hunan. Officially, illiteracy and semi-literacy among the Yao in China still stood at 40.6% in 2002.

Notable people

* Wang Yungui (born 1992), entrepreneur and businesswoman

References

Sources

AsiaHarvest.org: Ethnic group profiles of China
* Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, 'Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples' in: ''Ancient Chiang Mai'' Volume 3. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B006IN1RNW * Máo Zōngwǔ 毛宗武: Yáozú Miǎnyǔ fāngyán yánjiū 瑶族勉语方言研究 (''Studies in Mien dialects of the Miao nationality''; Běijīng 北京,

Publishing House of Minority Nationalities The Publishing House of Minority Nationalities () is a publishing house established on January 15, 1953, as a division of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the United Front Work Department, and focused on academic publishing. Its headquarte ...

2004), . * Méng Cháojí 蒙朝吉: Hàn-Yáo cídiǎn – Bùnǔyǔ 汉瑶词典——布努语 (''Chinese-Yao Dictionary – Bunu''; Chéngdū 成都, Sìchuān mínzú chūbǎnshè 四川民族出版社 1996), . * *Barker, Judith C., and Saechao, Kaochoy. "A Household Survey of Older Iu-Mien Refugees in Rural California." Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 12.2 (1997): 121–143. *Barker, Judith C. & Saechao, Kaochoy. (2000). A demographic survey of Iu-Mien in West Coast States of the U.S., 1993. Journal of Immigrant Health, 2:1, 31–42. * Phan Ngọc Khuê. 2003. ''Lễ cấp sắc của người Dao Lô Gang ở Lạng Sơn''. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản văn hóa thông tin. *

Films

*2003 �
''Death of a Shaman''
Directed by Richard Hall; produced by Fahm Fong Saeyang. *1989 �
"Moving Mountains: The Story of the Yiu Mien"
Directed and produced by Elaine Velazquez

External links

The Virtual Hilltribe Museum
(on a Chinese government website)

– bibliography by Barend ter Haar
Yao People On-line
– in Chinese
LearnMien.com
{{Authority control Ethnic groups officially recognized by China Ethnic groups in Vietnam Ethnic groups in Hunan Ethnic groups in Guangxi Ethnic groups in Yunnan Ethnic groups in Guizhou