The Manes (so called by the Portuguese), Mani or Manneh were invaders who attacked the western coast of Africa in what is now
Guinea
Guinea, officially the Republic of Guinea, is a coastal country in West Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Guinea-Bissau to the northwest, Senegal to the north, Mali to the northeast, Côte d'Ivoire to the southeast, and Sier ...
,
Liberia
Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to Liberia–Sierra Leone border, its northwest, Guinea to Guinea–Liberia border, its north, Ivory Coast to Ivory Coast–Lib ...
and
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered to the southeast by Liberia and by Guinea to the north. Sierra Leone's land area is . It has a tropical climate and envi ...
throughout much of the sixteenth century.
Background
The widest deployment of political and economic power in the
Sudan
Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...
before the seventeenth century was that stemming from Mandé initiative in the successive empires of
Ghana
Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
and
Mali
Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the List of African countries by area, eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over . The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east b ...
(and to some extent of
Songhai also). This had political consequences in the lands immediately to the west and south of the Mandé heartland around the upper reaches of the
Niger
Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state Geography of Niger#Political geography, bordered by Libya to the Libya–Niger border, north-east, Chad to the Chad–Niger border, east ...
and
Senegal
Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to Mauritania–Senegal border, the north, Mali to Mali–Senegal border, the east, Guinea t ...
rivers. One result was the
Fulani
The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people are an ethnic group in Sahara, Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, South Sudan, Darfur, ...
dispersion eastward past the farthest reaches of Mandé influence, and the other was the settlement of Mandé-speakers along the West Atlantic coast.
Mandé-speakers moved west and south of their homeland as traders and conquerors. In the case of traders, an incentive was probably access to the supplies of salt obtainable from the coast. This move towards the coastlands led to a number of Mandé pioneers carving out kingdoms for themselves in emulation of the major model of Mali. There seem to have been two major axes for the Mandé expansion. One was along the line of the river Gambia, a useful artery for trade, which rises within a few miles of the sources of the
Falémé, a major tributary of the Senegal, whose headwaters were in Mande occupation. The other, separated from
The Gambia
The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa. Geographically, The Gambia is the List of African countries by area, smallest country in continental Africa; it is surrounded by Senegal on all sides except for ...
by the
Fouta Djallon
Fouta Djallon (, , ; ) is a Highland (geography), highland region in the center of Guinea, roughly corresponding with Middle Guinea, in West Africa.
Etymology
The Fulani people call the region Fouta Jallon Kingdom, Fuuta-Jaloo ( ) in the Pular l ...
massif which the Fulani were occupying, ran south into modern
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered to the southeast by Liberia and by Guinea to the north. Sierra Leone's land area is . It has a tropical climate and envi ...
close by the
Susu settlement. In both areas, political organizations were established under rulers called ''farimas''. Initially they paid tribute to
Mali
Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the List of African countries by area, eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over . The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east b ...
, and even after the decline of the Mali power in the later fifteenth century, they maintained some idea of its previous supremacy.
Origins and identity
Some early writers suggested that the Mane may have come from as far away as the
Kongo or
Niger
Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state Geography of Niger#Political geography, bordered by Libya to the Libya–Niger border, north-east, Chad to the Chad–Niger border, east ...
. Recent scholars, however, have shown that they were a
Mande people
Mande may refer to:
* Mandé peoples of western Africa
* Mande languages, their Niger-Congo languages
* Manding, a term covering a subgroup of Mande peoples, and sometimes used for one of them, Mandinka
* Garo people of northeastern India and no ...
, likely the
Mandinka
Mandinka, Mandika, Mandinkha, Mandinko, or Mandingo may refer to:
Media
* Mandingo (novel), ''Mandingo'' (novel), a bestselling novel published in 1957
* Mandingo (film), ''Mandingo'' (film), a 1975 film based on the eponymous 1957 novel
* ''Man ...
who established themselves in the area around
Moussadougou,
Guinea
Guinea, officially the Republic of Guinea, is a coastal country in West Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Guinea-Bissau to the northwest, Senegal to the north, Mali to the northeast, Côte d'Ivoire to the southeast, and Sier ...
in the 16th century.
Mande people had raided the coastal areas for centuries before their large-scale migration during the 16th century. According to the Portuguese trader
André Álvares de Almada, they spoke a language closely related that of some of the
Mandinka people
The Mandinka or Malinke are a West African ethnic group primarily found in southern Mali, The Gambia, southern Senegal and eastern Guinea. Numbering about 11 million, they are the largest subgroup of the Mandé peoples and one of the List of ethn ...
along the
Gambia river
The Gambia River (formerly known as the River Gambra, French language, French: ''Fleuve Gambie'', Portuguese language, Portuguese: ''Rio Gâmbia'') is a major river in West Africa, running from the Fouta Djallon plateau in north Guinea westward ...
, wore the same types of clothes, and used the same weapons. 'Mane' was originally a surname of
Jola origin; along with the Sane, the Manes were the core of the Nyancho royal aristocracy of the Empire of
Kaabu
Kaabu (1537–1867), also written Gabu, Ngabou, and N'Gabu, was a federation of Mandinka kingdoms in the Senegambia region centered within modern northeastern Guinea-Bissau, large parts of today's Gambia, and extending into Koussanar, Kou ...
, but their link with the Mane of Moussadougou, if any, is unclear.
The ''Mane'' as such were the group of elites who would lead a large-scale migration into the coastal areas. The rank and file were composed of the ''Sumba'' and were continually reinforced as conquest progressed.
The Mane used small
bows, which enabled them to reuse their enemies' arrows against them, while the enemy could make no use of their short arrows.
The rest of their arms consisted of large shields made of reeds, long enough to give complete cover to the user, two knives, one of which was tied to the left arm, and two quivers for their arrows. Their clothes consisted of loose cotton shirts with wide necks and ample sleeves reaching down to their knees to become tights. One striking feature of their appearance was the abundance of feathers stuck in their shirts and their red caps.[Rodney, 1967, p 222.
Based on account of the Portuguese chronicler De Almada.]
Expansion
While the identification of the Mane is relatively uncontroversial, scholars have produced highly divergent accounts of their invasion(s) of the coastal areas. The central disagreement is whether there was a single Mane invasion that impacted both Liberia and Sierra Leone, or rather waves of invaders who followed different paths over the course of several decades.
Single invasion
The theory of a single Mane invasion originated with
Walter Rodney
Walter Anthony Rodney (23 March 1942 – 13 June 1980) was a Guyanese historian, political activist and academic. His notable works include '' How Europe Underdeveloped Africa'', first published in 1972. He was assassinated in Georgetown, ...
and was supported by
Yves Person. Early Portuguese sources describe a force led by
Macarico, a high-ranking woman from the
Mali Empire
The Mali Empire (Manding languages, Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or ''Manden ...
who, having offended the ''mansa'', emigrated with a large following. In the early 1500s she supposedly marched her army south until they reached the
Portuguese fort of
Elmina
Elmina ( Fante: ''Edina'') is a town and the capital of the Komenda/Edina/Eguafo/Abirem District on the south coast of Ghana in the Central Region. It is situated on a bay on the Atlantic Ocean, west of Cape Coast.Straight line distances ...
. From there they turned west until they arrived in Liberia, where they first appear in the historical record. More likely, however, this army never went to Elmina but simply marched across Liberia from the north.
[George E. Brooks, ''Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society, and Trade in Western Africa, 1000-1630'' (Westview Press, 1993; ), p. 286.]
The Mane fought a major battle against the
Bullom people in 1545 near
Cape Mount, Liberia where Macarico's son was killed, and she died soon after. The Mane's organization coupled with their auxiliaries reputation for cannibalism and the political fragmentation of the natives enabled them to conquer the entire region within about 15 years. These auxiliaries, called ''Sumbas'', included the Quoja, the Quea, and people speaking
Kru languages
The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.
Classification
According to Güldemann (2018), Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relatio ...
."
[ The Mane advance was only halted when, in the northwest of what is now Sierra Leone, they came up against the Susu, like themselves a Mandé people, possessing similar weapons, military organization and tactics.
]
Multiple invasions
Andrew Massing in 1985 advanced a different interpretation, challenging Rodney's reading of the place names in primary sources. He argued that the major battle against the Bullom happened on or near Sherbro Island
Sherbro Island is in the Atlantic Ocean, and is included within Bonthe District, Southern Province, Sierra Leone. The island is separated from the African mainland by the Sherbro River in the north and Sherbro Strait in the east. It is long ...
, Sierra Leone. The Quoja, rather than being a Kru-speaking part of the ''Sumbas'', led a separate invasion of the Cape Mount region from the east in the 1620s or 30s, eventually coming into conflict with the Mane states, and may have been Mande
Mande may refer to:
* Mandé peoples of western Africa
* Mande languages, their Niger-Congo languages
* Manding languages, Manding, a term covering a subgroup of Mande peoples, and sometimes used for one of them, Mandinka people, Mandinka
* Garo p ...
-speaking (perhaps Vai) themselves. These attacks were only the most recent among Mande incursions, sometimes as small as armed trade caravans, that had begun as early as 1300.
Aftermath
The Mane expansion had a profound impact on the ethnicites and societies of the coast. The Mandé-speaking Mende are almost certainly the descendants of Mane aristocrats mixed with the native Bullom people. Further north, the Loko are also Mandé-speaking, but mixed with the Temne who, themselves speaking a West Atlantic language, have an aristocracy of Mane origin. They brought improved military techniques and iron and cloth manufacture to the region, but the disruption and oppression caused by their invasion helped degrade the thriving stone and ivory carving and raffia weaving traditions among the native communities.
The Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. The Sapes had been un-warlike, but after the invasions, right until the late 19th century, bows, shield
A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand, which may or may not be strapped to the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to intercept specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry like spears or long ranged projectiles suc ...
s, and knives of the Mane type had become ubiquitous in Sierra Leone, as had the Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting in formation, carrying the large-style shields.
Sources
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*
*
Notes
{{Reflist
History of Africa
Mandé people