Malik-Shah I (, ) was the third sultan of the
Seljuk Empire
The Seljuk Empire, or the Great Seljuk Empire, was a High Middle Ages, high medieval, culturally Turco-Persian tradition, Turco-Persian, Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslim empire, established and ruled by the Qiniq (tribe), Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. ...
from 1072 to 1092, under whom the sultanate reached the zenith of its power and influence.

During his youth, he spent his time participating in the campaigns of his father
Alp Arslan, along with the latter's vizier
Nizam al-Mulk
Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī Ṭūsī () (1018 – 1092), better known by his honorific title of Niẓām al-Mulk (), was a Persian Sunni scholar, jurist, political philosopher and vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising from a low position w ...
. During one such campaign in 1072, Alp Arslan was fatally wounded and died only a few days later. After that, Malik-Shah was crowned as the new sultan of the empire, but the succession was contested by his uncle
Qavurt. Although Malik-Shah was the nominal head of the Seljuk state, Nizam al-Mulk held near absolute power during his reign. Malik-Shah spent the rest of his reign waging war against the
Karakhanids
The Kara-Khanid Khanate (; zh, t=喀喇汗國, p=Kālā Hánguó), also known as the Karakhanids, Qarakhanids, Ilek Khanids or the Afrasiabids (), was a Karluks, Karluk Turkic peoples, Turkic khanate that ruled Central Asia from the 9th to the ...
to the east and establishing order in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
.
The cause of Malik-Shah's death remains under dispute to this day; according to some scholars, he was poisoned by Abbasid caliph
al-Muqtadi, while others say that he was poisoned by the supporters of Nizam al-Mulk.
Etymology
Although he was known by several names, he was mostly known as "Malik-Shah", a combination of the Arabic word
malik
Malik (; ; ; variously Romanized ''Mallik'', ''Melik'', ''Malka'', ''Malek'', ''Maleek'', ''Malick'', ''Mallick'', ''Melekh'') is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic d ...
(king) and the Persian word
shah
Shāh (; ) is a royal title meaning "king" in the Persian language.Yarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII, no. 1 (1989) Though chiefly associated with the monarchs of Iran, it was also used to refer to the leaders of numerous Per ...
(which also means king).
Early life
Malik-Shah was born on 16 August 1055 and spent his youth in
Isfahan
Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
. According to the 12th-century
Persian historian
Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, Malik-Shah had fair skin, was tall and somewhat bulky. In 1064, Malik-Shah, only 9 years old by then, along with
Nizam al-Mulk
Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī Ṭūsī () (1018 – 1092), better known by his honorific title of Niẓām al-Mulk (), was a Persian Sunni scholar, jurist, political philosopher and vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising from a low position w ...
, the Persian ''
vizier
A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
'' of the Empire, took part in Alp Arslan's campaign in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
. The same year, Malik-Shah was married to
Terken Khatun, the daughter of the
Karakhanid
The Kara-Khanid Khanate (; zh, t=喀喇汗國, p=Kālā Hánguó), also known as the Karakhanids, Qarakhanids, Ilek Khanids or the Afrasiabids (), was a Karluk Turkic khanate that ruled Central Asia from the 9th to the early 13th century. Th ...
khan
Ibrahim Tamghach-Khan. In 1066, Alp Arslan arranged a ceremony near
Merv
Merv (, ', ; ), also known as the Merve Oasis, was a major Iranian peoples, Iranian city in Central Asia, on the historical Silk Road, near today's Mary, Turkmenistan. Human settlements on the site of Merv existed from the 3rd millennium& ...
, where he appointed Malik-Shah as his heir and also granted him Isfahan as a
fief
A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...
.
In 1071, Malik-Shah took part in the
Syrian
Syrians () are the majority inhabitants of Syria, indigenous to the Levant, most of whom have Arabic, especially its Levantine and Mesopotamian dialects, as a mother tongue. The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Syrian people is a blend ...
campaign of his father, and stayed in
Aleppo
Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
when his father fought the
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
emperor
Romanos IV Diogenes at
Manzikert. In 1072, Malik-Shah and Nizam al-Mulk accompanied Alp-Arslan during his campaign in
Transoxiana
Transoxiana or Transoxania (, now called the Amu Darya) is the Latin name for the region and civilization located in lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Tu ...
against the Karakhanids. However, Alp-Arslan was badly wounded during his expedition, and Malik-Shah shortly took over the army. Alp-Arslan died some days later, and Malik-Shah was declared as the new ''sultan'' of the empire.
Campaigns and Battles
Campaign of Northwest (1064)
Malik-Shah joined his father
Alp Arslan's expedition to the northwest in 1064. He took part in the capture of castles in Georgia and Armenia together with his father Alp Arslan. He advanced along the
Aras River
The Aras is a transboundary river in the Caucasus. It rises in eastern Turkey and flows along the borders between Turkey and Armenia, between Turkey and the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan, between Iran and both Azerbaijan and Armenia, and, fin ...
with the army under the command of Malik-Shah. He captured many castles and cities in the region, especially Meryemnişin,
Byurakan and Surmari.
Battle of Kerj Abu Dulaf (1073)
However, right after Malik-Shah's accession, his uncle
Qavurt claimed the throne for himself and sent Malik-Shah a message which said: "I am the eldest brother, and you are a youthful son; I have the greater right to my brother Alp-Arslan's inheritance." Malik-Shah then replied by sending the following message: "A brother does not inherit when there is a son." This message enraged Qavurt, who thereafter occupied Isfahan. In 1073, the
Battle of Kerj Abu Dulaf took place near Hamadan, lasting three days. Qavurt was accompanied by his seven sons, and his army consisted of
Turkmens, while the army of Malik-Shah consisted of ''
ghulams'' ("military slaves") and contingents of
Kurdish and
Arab
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
troops.
During the battle, the Turks of Malik-Shah's army mutinied against him, but he nevertheless managed to defeat and capture Qavurt. Qavurt then begged for mercy and in return promised to retire to
Oman
Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
. However, Nizam al-Mulk declined the offer, claiming that sparing him was an indication of weakness. After some time, Qavurt was strangled to death with a bowstring, while two of his sons were blinded. After having dealt with that problem, Malik-Shah appointed
Qutlugh-Tegin as the governor of
Fars and
Sav-Tegin as the governor of
Kerman.
Expedition of Transoxiana (1073)
Malik-Shah then turned his attention towards the Karakhanids, who had after the death of
Alp Arslan invaded
Tukharistan, which was ruled by Malik-Shah's brother Ayaz, who was unable to repel the Karakhanids and was killed by them. Malik-Shah went on a campaign to
Transoxiana
Transoxiana or Transoxania (, now called the Amu Darya) is the Latin name for the region and civilization located in lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Tu ...
with his army in 1073. Malik-Shah finally managed to repel the Karakhanids and after
Balkh and
Herat
Herāt (; Dari/Pashto: هرات) is an oasis city and the third-largest city in Afghanistan. In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province, situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains (''Se ...
, he headed towards Termez and captured
Termez, giving the key of the city to
Sav-Tegin. Malik-Shah then appointed his other brother
Shihab al-Din Tekish as the ruler of
Tukharistan and
Balkh. During the same period, the
Ghaznavid ruler
Ibrahim was seizing Seljuk territory in northern
Khorasan, but was defeated by Malik-Shah, who then made peace with the latter and gave his daughter
Gawhar Khatun in marriage to Ibrahim's son
Mas'ud III.
Campaign of Georgia (1076)
George II, who ascended to the throne of Georgia after the death of
Bagrat IV, attacked the Seljuk forces at Partskhisi in 1073-1074 and defeated them in the
Battle of Partskhisi. Later, George II, who captured some places including the
Şavşat Castle, broke the agreements his father
Bagrat IV had made with the Seljuks. Not wanting to allow the Georgians to grow stronger, Malik-Shah I used these attacks as an excuse and went on a campaign against Georgia in 1076. As a result of the events, Malik-Shah I came to
Kartli and defeated the Georgians. Malik-Shah I later took
Ganja from Fadlun and gave the administration of the region to
Savtegin, then returned to his capital with his army.
Campaign of Georgia (1078-79)
Savtegin went on a campaign against the
George II. He was defeated in the battle near Partskhisi and retreated. Thereupon, Malik-Shah I organized a second campaign against Georgia in 1078-1079. Malik-Shah, who entered Georgia, invaded the Somkheth region with his army, captured Şmasvilde and put things in order, and returned, leaving new forces for Savtegin. After Malik-Shah returned, Savtegin moved against the Georgians, but George II defeated him once again in the battle near Partskhisi. After Savtegin was defeated by the Georgians, Malik-Shah sent Emir Ahmed to Georgia. Ahmed defeated the Georgians and captured
Kars,
Erzurum
Erzurum (; ) is a List of cities in Turkey, city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010. It is the site of an ...
,
Oltu and some cities subject to Byzantium. The following year, the Seljuks captured
Şavşat,
Adjara,
Kartli,
Ardanuç and the areas up to
Trabzon
Trabzon, historically known as Trebizond, is a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province. The city was founded in 756 BC as "Trapezous" by colonists from Miletus. It was added into the Achaemenid E ...
. George II went to Isfahan and accepted to be a vassal of Malik-Shah.
Campaign of Caucasus (1086)
Malik-Shah I organized an expedition to the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
in 1086. As a result of this expedition, he strengthened his control over the emirs, kings and princes in the region. After this expedition,
George II went to
Isfahan
Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
again in 1088 and appeared before Malik-Shah I. When
George agreed to pay taxes and become a Seljuk vassal, Sultan Malik-Shah gave him back
Kakheti and Hereti.
Expedition of Northern Syria (1086)
As a result of the struggle for dominance among the emirs, Malik-Shah decided to organize an expedition to Northern Syria. Malik-Shah moved towards Northern Syria with his army in 1086. Malik-Shah his army captured
Aleppo
Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
,
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
,
Edessa
Edessa (; ) was an ancient city (''polis'') in Upper Mesopotamia, in what is now Urfa or Şanlıurfa, Turkey. It was founded during the Hellenistic period by Macedonian general and self proclaimed king Seleucus I Nicator (), founder of the Sel ...
,
Harran
Harran is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Şanlıurfa Province, Turkey. Its area is 904 km2, and its population is 96,072 (2022). It is approximately southeast of Urfa and from the Syrian border crossing at Akçakale.
...
and
Qal'at Ja'bar Castle during his Northern Syria campaign. Later, they captured
Manbij,
Shayzar,
Latakia
Latakia (; ; Syrian Arabic, Syrian pronunciation: ) is the principal port city of Syria and capital city of the Latakia Governorate located on the Mediterranean coast. Historically, it has also been known as Laodicea in Syria or Laodicea ad Mar ...
,
Kafertab and
Apamea.
Expedition of Transoxiana (1087)
In 1087, due to internal unrest in
Turkestan, Malik-Shah decided to organize another expedition to
Transoxiana
Transoxiana or Transoxania (, now called the Amu Darya) is the Latin name for the region and civilization located in lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Tu ...
. Malik-Shah moved with his army to the
Transoxiana
Transoxiana or Transoxania (, now called the Amu Darya) is the Latin name for the region and civilization located in lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Tu ...
region of
Turkestan. He captured many castles belonging to the Karakhanids, especially
Bukhara
Bukhara ( ) is the List of cities in Uzbekistan, seventh-largest city in Uzbekistan by population, with 280,187 residents . It is the capital of Bukhara Region.
People have inhabited the region around Bukhara for at least five millennia, and t ...
,
Samarkand
Samarkand ( ; Uzbek language, Uzbek and Tajik language, Tajik: Самарқанд / Samarqand, ) is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central As ...
,
Balasagun,
Isfijab and
Kashgar. When Malik-Shah arrived at
Uzkand with his army, the Eastern
Karakhanid
The Kara-Khanid Khanate (; zh, t=喀喇汗國, p=Kālā Hánguó), also known as the Karakhanids, Qarakhanids, Ilek Khanids or the Afrasiabids (), was a Karluk Turkic khanate that ruled Central Asia from the 9th to the early 13th century. Th ...
ruler Bugra Kara Khan Harun came to Malik-Shah and agreed to be his vassal and pay taxes. In addition, the Western Karakhanid ruler Ahmed was captured by the Seljuks after the capture of
Samarkand
Samarkand ( ; Uzbek language, Uzbek and Tajik language, Tajik: Самарқанд / Samarqand, ) is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central As ...
, and Malik-Shah appointed one of his emirs to the Western Karakhanid throne.
Domestic policy and Ismailis
In 1092,
Nizam al-Mulk
Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī Ṭūsī () (1018 – 1092), better known by his honorific title of Niẓām al-Mulk (), was a Persian Sunni scholar, jurist, political philosopher and vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising from a low position w ...
was assassinated near Sihna, on the road to
Baghdad
Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
, by a man disguised as a
Sufi
Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
. As the assassin was immediately cut down by Nizam's bodyguard, it became impossible to establish with certainty who had sent him. One theory had it that he was an
Assassin
Assassination is the willful killing, by a sudden, secret, or planned attack, of a personespecially if prominent or important. It may be prompted by political, ideological, religious, financial, or military motives.
Assassinations are orde ...
, since these assassins regularly made attempts on the lives of Seljuk officials and rulers during the 11th century. Another theory had it that the attack had been instigated by Malik-Shah, who may have grown tired of his overmighty vizier. After Nizam al-Mulk's death, Malik-Shah appointed another Persian named
Taj al-Mulk Abu'l Ghana'im as his vizier. Malik-Shah then went to Baghdad and decided to depose
al-Muqtadi and sent him the following message: "You must relinquish Baghdad to me, and depart to any land you choose." This was because Malik-Shah wanted to appoint his grandson (or nephew) Ja'far as the new caliph.
The Sultan had a good relationship with the Shias at large except for the
Ismailis of
Hassan ibn Sabbah. Followers of Sabbah managed to occupy the
Alamut fortress near
Qazvin
Qazvin (; ; ) is a city in the Central District (Qazvin County), Central District of Qazvin County, Qazvin province, Qazvin province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is the largest city in the provi ...
, and the army under the command of the emir Arslan-Tash, sent by Malik Shah, could not recapture it. The Sultan's
ghilman, Kizil Sarug, besieged the Daru fortress in
Kuhistan, but ceased hostilities in connection with the death of Malik Shah on November 19, 1092, possibly due to poisoning.
Death and aftermath
Malik-Shah died on 19 November 1092 while he was hunting. He was most likely poisoned by the caliph or the supporters of Nizam al-Mulk. Under the orders of Terken Khatun, Malik-Shah's body was taken back to Isfahan, where it was buried in a
madrasa
Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , ), sometimes Romanization of Arabic, romanized as madrasah or madrassa, is the Arabic word for any Educational institution, type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whet ...
.
Upon his death, the Seljuk Empire fell into chaos, as rival successors and regional governors carved up their empire and waged war against each other. The situation within the Seljuk lands was further complicated by the beginning of the
First Crusade
The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim conquest ...
, which detached large portions of Syria and Palestine from Muslim control in 1098 and 1099. The success of the First Crusade is at least in part attributable to the political confusion which resulted from Malik-Shah's death.
Family
Malikshah had many wives and concubines and multiple children born from them. Principal wives were:
#
Terken Khatun (b. 1053, m. 1065. d. 1094
) – daughter of
Tamghach Khan Ibrahim
#* Dawud (d. 1082)
#* Ahmed (1077–1088)
#*
Mahmud (b. 1087–88)
#* Abu'l-Qasim (d. childhood)
#* A son (d. childhood, buried in Ray)
#*
Mah-i Mulk Khatun (m. 1082 to
Al-Muqtadi)
#
Zubayda Khatun (b. 1056
d. 1099
) – daughter of Yaquti son of
Chaghri Beg
#*
Berkyaruq
#*
Gawhar Khatun (m.
Mas'ud III of Ghazni)
Concubines:
# Taj al-Din Khatun Safariyya (also known as Bushali,
d. 1121, Merv)
#*
Muhammad Tapar
#*
Ahmad Sanjar
#* A son (d. childhood, buried in Ray)
#*
Ismah Khatun (m. 1109 to
Al-Mustazhir)
# Unknown mothers:
#* Tughril
#* Amir Khumarin (an albino)
#* Sitara Khatun (m.
Garshasp II, son of
Ali ibn Faramurz)
#* Salkim Khatun
(m.
Qarin III, son of
Shahriyar IV, m.
Ali I)
#* Safiya Khatun (m. Taj al-Din Abu'l-Fazl Nasr bin Halef, ruler of
Sistan
Sistān (), also known as Sakastān (, , current name: Zabol) and Sijistan (), is a historical region in south-eastern Iran and extending across the borders of present-day south-western Afghanistan, and south-western Pakistan. Mostly correspond ...
)
#* A daughter (m. Sultan Shah, son of
Qavurt)
#* A daughter (m. Ispahbud Taj al-Mulk Mardavij, son of Ali ibn Mardavij)
#* Terken Khatun (m. Kara-Khanid Muhammad Arslan Khan (r. 1102 – 1129)
#** Rukn al-Din Mahmud Khan (r. 1132–1144), succeeded Sanjar in Khurasan.
#* A daughter (m. 1101–02 Abdulaziz bin Omar bin Maza, governor of Bukhara)
Legacy
The 18th century English historian
Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English essayist, historian, and politician. His most important work, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1789, is known for ...
wrote of him:
Personality
Malik-Shah displayed substantial interest in science, art and literature.
The
Isfahan Observatory or Malikshah Observatory was constructed during his reign, closing shortly after his death in
1092.
It was from the work at the observatory that the
Jalali Calendar
The Jalali calendar, also referred to as ''Malikshahi'' and ''Maliki'', is a solar calendar compiled during the reign of Jalaluddin Malik-Shah I, the Sultan of the Seljuk Empire (1072–1092 CE), by the order of Grand Vizier Nizam al-Mulk, using ...
was adopted.
He thought highly of the art of architecture as well, as he enjoyed building new and splendid mosques in his capital,
Isfahan
Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
. He was religiously tolerant which is supported by the fact that during his reign, subjects of the Seljuk Empire enjoyed internal peace and religious tolerance. Malik-Shah also showed lenience towards exquisite poetry as his reign is also memorable for the poetry of
Omar Khayyam
Ghiyāth al-Dīn Abū al-Fatḥ ʿUmar ibn Ibrāhīm Nīshābūrī (18 May 1048 – 4 December 1131) (Persian language, Persian: غیاث الدین ابوالفتح عمر بن ابراهیم خیام نیشابورﻯ), commonly known as Omar ...
.
[
Despite being arguably the most powerful monarch of his era, it is believed that Malik-Shah was unpretentious and modest. The legend has it that during the years that were hugely successful for Seljuks on all fronts, Malik-Shah, overwhelmed by the imperial might of his dynasty, used to climb to the top of a hill and say the following: "Oh Almighty God, I will somehow cope with the problem of hunger, please save me from the threat of abundance".
Malik Shah did not spend as much time on campaign as his prominent predecessor Tughril or his father Alp Arslan did. ]Isfahan
Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
became securely established as his chief city of residence, although in the latter years of his rule Malik Shah preferred to winter in Baghdad
Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
. Whereas Alp Arslan had spent just over a year out of his decade-long reign in Isfahan, Malik Shah resided there for more than half of his rule. Isfahan also served as the burial site of Malik Shah, his descendants, as well as celebrated bureaucrats of the sultanate like Nizam al-Mulk. Malik Shah's decision of residing in a capital far away from the centers of Turkmen settlement around Merv
Merv (, ', ; ), also known as the Merve Oasis, was a major Iranian peoples, Iranian city in Central Asia, on the historical Silk Road, near today's Mary, Turkmenistan. Human settlements on the site of Merv existed from the 3rd millennium& ...
, Rayy, Hamadan
Hamadan ( ; , ) is a mountainous city in western Iran. It is located in the Central District of Hamadan County in Hamadan province, serving as the capital of the province, county, and district. As of the 2016 Iranian census, it had a po ...
, and Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
could well be explained by the increasing distance between him and his nomadic subjects.
References
Sources
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Malik-Shah 01
Seljuk rulers
1055 births
1092 deaths
11th-century monarchs in Asia
People of the Nizari–Seljuk wars