Mahmut Muhiti
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Mahmut Muhiti (; ; 1887–1944), nicknamed Shizhang (), was a
Uyghur Uyghur may refer to: * Uyghurs, a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia (West China) ** Uyghur language, a Turkic language spoken primarily by the Uyghurs *** Old Uyghur language, a different Turkic language spoken in the Uyghur K ...
warrior from
Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
. He was a commander of the insurgents led by Khoja Niyaz during the
Kumul Rebellion The Kumul Rebellion ( zh, t=哈密暴動, p=Hāmì bàodòng, l=Hami Uprising) was a rebellion of Hami, Kumulik Uyghurs from 1931 to 1934 who conspired with Hui people, Hui Islam in China, Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Sh ...
against the Xinjiang provincial authorities. After Hoya-Niyaz and
Sheng Shicai Sheng Shicai ( zh, c=盛世才; 3 December 189513 July 1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang from 1933 to 1944. Sheng's rise to power started with a coup d'état in 1933 when he was appointed the ''duban'' (Military Governor) of Xinjia ...
, the newly appointed ruler of Xinjiang, formed peace, Muhiti was briefly appointed by Sheng a Military Commander of the
Kashgar Kashgar () or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is a city in the Tarim Basin region of southern Xinjiang, China. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, located near the country's border with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. For over 2,000 years, Kashgar ...
region in 1934, but was soon demoted and appointed commander of the 6th Division, composed of Turkic Muslims and named Deputy Military Commander of the Kashgar region. Muhiti opposed Sheng's close ties with the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
forming opposition to his regime in Kashgar. He organised the Islamic rebellion against Sheng in 1937 and fled to
British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in South Asia. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another ...
. Muhiti was afterwards active in the Japanese-occupied China, fruitlessly cooperating with Japan in order to enhance the cooperation between Japan and Muslims, dying in
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
.


Background

Muhiti was born in 1887, to a wealthy family. Little is known about his personal life. He was a third son in the family of
Turpan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the ...
merchants. British consul K. C. Packman described him as "a wealthy but intriguing and unreliable ex-merchant from
Turpan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the ...
". Packman's successor Thomson-Glover said that Muhiti "was a simple and kindly man, and a zealous Mohammedan". He ran a cotton business with the Soviet Union and was a long time
Jadidist The Jadid movement or Jadidism was an Turco-Islamic modernist political, religious, and cultural movement in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century. They normally referred to themselves by the Tatar terms ''Taraqqiparvarlar ...
. His brother Makhsut (1882–1933) was a Jadidist activist.


Kumul Rebellion

At the end of 1932, Muhiti was one of the leaders of the insurrection in
Turpan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the ...
, along with his elder brother Makhsut against the Xinjiang provincial authorities. The group that initiated the revolt in Turpan was a secret organisation led by Muhiti's brother Makhsut, who was killed during the rebellion (on March 8, 1933, in the battle for Lukchun in Pichan County, his head was cut off by White Russian Guards, mobilized in 1932 into Xinjiang Provincial Army by Governor
Jin Shuren Jin Shuren (; c. 1883–1941) was a Chinese Xinjiang clique warlord who served as Governor of Xinjiang between 1928 and 1933. Biography Jin Shuren was born in Yongjing, Hezhou, Gansu. He graduated at the Gansu provincial academy and ...
). The rebels fought furiously, and by January 1933 most of the city was in rebels' hands. Leaders of the local uprisings were nominally placed within the 36th Division of the
National Revolutionary Army The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; zh, labels=no, t=國民革命軍) served as the military arm of the Kuomintang, Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) from 1924 until 1947. From 1928, it functioned as the regular army, de facto ...
, a regular
Chinese Chinese may refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people identified with China, through nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **Han Chinese, East Asian ethnic group native to China. **'' Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic ...
army by Ma Shiming, a deputy of
Ma Zhongying Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying (, Xiao'erjing: ; c. 1910 or 1908 – after 1936), nickname Commander Ga (尕司令, lit. youngster commander), was a Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. His birth name was Ma Buying (). Ma ...
. Between 1933 and 1934 Muhiti was the chief military commander of the Khoja Niyaz's forces. The
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
decided to aid the Xinjiang provincial government and sent some 2,000 Chinese soldiers forced by Japanese across the Soviet border and interned by the Soviets. These Chinese soldiers were known as the
North-East National Salvation Army The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A ''compass rose'' is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each ...
. Their arrival in March 1933 in Xinjiang under command of Liu PinAndrew D.W.Forbes ''Warlords and Muslims and Chinese Central Asia'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, page 244 coincided with the brake of relations between Ma Shiming and Turkic rebels in Turpan. Soon,
Sheng Shicai Sheng Shicai ( zh, c=盛世才; 3 December 189513 July 1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang from 1933 to 1944. Sheng's rise to power started with a coup d'état in 1933 when he was appointed the ''duban'' (Military Governor) of Xinjia ...
, Chief of Staff of the Xinjiang's Frontier Army, restored the provincial authority in Turpan. A group of survivors from Turpan, including Muhiti, regrouped with
Hoja-Niyaz Khoja Niyaz, also Khoja Niyaz Haji (; ; 1889 – 21 August 1941), was a Uyghur independence movement leader who led several rebellions in Xinjiang against the Kumul Khanate, the Chinese governor Jin Shuren and later the Hui warlord Ma Zhong ...
in
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
. Using the opportunity during a coup in the provincial capital of
Ürümqi Ürümqi, , is the capital of the Xinjiang, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwestern China. With a census population of 4 million in 2020, Ürümqi is the second-largest city in China's northwestern interior after Xi'an, also the ...
against Xinjiang's Governor
Jin Shuren Jin Shuren (; c. 1883–1941) was a Chinese Xinjiang clique warlord who served as Governor of Xinjiang between 1928 and 1933. Biography Jin Shuren was born in Yongjing, Hezhou, Gansu. He graduated at the Gansu provincial academy and ...
, Hoja-Niyaz led his forces towards Turpan in April. They proclaimed themselves as the Xinjiang Citizens Revolutionary Army and wrote to the Central government in
Nanking Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400. Situated in the Yan ...
justifying their response to Jin's tyranny. At the same time, Ma Zhongying was advancing from the east towards Ürümqi. However, Hoja-Niyaz's anxiety about Ma Zhongying's ambitions were compounded by conflicts over arms and ammunitions. This led to discord between the two Muslim leaders. Newly appointed provincial administration, ''de facto'' led by ''Duban'' or Military Governor Sheng Shicai, entered negotiations with Hoja-Niyaz. Previously they tried to drive a wedge between the two rebel leaders by offering Ma Zhongying military supremacy over
Tarim Basin The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Xinjiang, Northwestern China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, Ch ...
. Hoja-Niyaz was offered partition of Xinjiang into north and south, where Hami and Turpan would be controlled by Muslims. Meanwhile, in February 1933, a rebellion erupted in
Khotan Hotan (also known by #Etymology, other names) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region in Northwestern China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become an ...
. They were joined by Turkish-educated nationalists who founded the Independence Association. In November 1933, the Independence Association proclaimed the East Turkestan Republic (ETR or TIRET), with Sabit Damulla as Prime Minister and surprisingly appointing Hoja-Niyaz, theoretically aligned with Ürümqi, as President ''in absentia''. Hoja-Niyaz accepted the presidency. However, not long after taking the position, he met with Soviet officials who instructed him to prove his reliability by bringing in the ETR's anti-Soviet Prime Minister Damulla. Hoja-Niyaz obliged and rendered Damulla to the Soviets who executed him. Ma Zhongying sieged Ürümqi for the second time in January 1934. This time, the Soviets sent military aid to Sheng. With the Soviet assistance, Sheng again defeated Ma Zhongying's forces, who retreated south from
Tien Shan The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, meaning the "Mountains of God/Heaven", is a large system of mountain ranges in Central Asia. The highest peak is Jengish Chokusu at high and located in Kyrgyzstan. Its lowest point is ...
, in a region controlled by the ETR. In February Ma Zhognyang's forces arrived in
Kashgar Kashgar () or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is a city in the Tarim Basin region of southern Xinjiang, China. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, located near the country's border with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. For over 2,000 years, Kashgar ...
, extinguishing the ETR. Hoja-Niyaz escaped upon the arrival of Ma Zhongying's troops and left Muhiti, his second in command in Kashgar Old City. In
Irkeshtam Erkeshtam, called Irkeshtam in Chinese and Dungan, or Erkech-Tam in Uyghur and Kyrgyz, is a border crossing between Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang, China, named after a village on the Kyrgyz side of the border in southern Osh Region. The border cross ...
Hoja-Niyaz signed an agreement that abolished the ETR and supported the Sheng's regime. He was appointed Deputy Chairman of Xinjiang. Muhiti supported the ceasefire agreement between Hoja-Niyaz and Sheng, which enabled him to hold a senior military post after the rebellion.


Service in Kashgar

Two weeks after
Ma Zhongying Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying (, Xiao'erjing: ; c. 1910 or 1908 – after 1936), nickname Commander Ga (尕司令, lit. youngster commander), was a Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. His birth name was Ma Buying (). Ma ...
left for the Soviet territory, in early July 1934,
Kashgar Kashgar () or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is a city in the Tarim Basin region of southern Xinjiang, China. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, located near the country's border with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. For over 2,000 years, Kashgar ...
was occupied by a unit of 400 Chinese soldiers under the command of Kung Cheng-han on 20 July. He was accompanied by the 2,000 strong Uighurs commanded by Muhiti. Thus, Kashgar came under the control of the Xinjiang's provincial authority after almost a year. After the arrest or flight of the ETR authorities, many Muslims in the region looked to Muhiti for a leadership. In order to reassure the local population and to allow himself further time to consolidate his power in the northern and eastern part of the province, Sheng appointed Muhiti as overall Military Commander for the Kashgar region. Muhiti formed the new administration in Kashgar known as the National Assembly. Sheng wasn't comfortable with the Muslim officials in Kashgar, and thus a month later, he appointed his fellow
Manchuria Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
n
Liu Pin Liu (; or ) is an East Asian surname. pinyin: in Mandarin Chinese, in Cantonese. It is the family name of the Han dynasty emperors. The character originally meant 'battle axe', but is now used only as a surname. It is listed 252nd in the clas ...
to the position of Commanding Officer in Kashgar. Muhiti was demoted and retained the position of Divisional Commander. He was rendered with a force of 2,000 Turkic troops. He became known as Mahmut Shizhang, a
Mandarin Mandarin or The Mandarin may refer to: Language * Mandarin Chinese, branch of Chinese originally spoken in northern parts of the country ** Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Mandarin, the official language of China ** Taiwanese Mandarin, Stand ...
term for a division commander. Sheng's
Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...
appointees took the effective control over the Kashgar region, and foremost amongst them was Liu, a Chinese nationalist and a Christian. Liu understood little about the local Muslim culture. Immediately upon his arrival he ordered that the picture of
Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-senUsually known as Sun Zhongshan () in Chinese; also known by Names of Sun Yat-sen, several other names. (; 12 November 186612 March 1925) was a Chinese physician, revolutionary, statesman, and political philosopher who founded the Republ ...
, the founder of the Chinese Republic, be hung in the Kashgar mosque. The local Muslim population was dismayed by the developments in Kashgar and considered that the "Bolsheviks had taken over the country and were bent on destroying religion". In addition, Sheng's educational reform which attacked some Islamic principles further alienated the Muslim population. The top priority of Muhiti's was schooling. The Uyghur Enlightenment Association was formed under the aegis of the Society for the Promotion of Education, a body that was revived during the ETR and carried on the legacy of earlier Jadidist societies. Abdulkarim Khan Makhdum, former Minister of Education of the ETR, continued to play an important role in educational work of Muhiti's Kashgar administration. The Uyghur Enlightenment Association started its work in April 1935, and took responsibility for publishing and schooling in Kashgar, significantly increasing availability of primary schooling. To fund this work, the association took control over the Kashgar's ''
zakat Zakat (or Zakāh زكاة) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Zakat is the Arabic word for "Giving to Charity" or "Giving to the Needy". Zakat is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam a relig ...
'' (Islamic charity) and
waqf A (; , plural ), also called a (, plural or ), or ''mortmain'' property, is an Alienation (property law), inalienable charitable financial endowment, endowment under Sharia, Islamic law. It typically involves donating a building, plot ...
, redirecting the wealth of local shrines to textbooks and teachers. Qadir Haji, chief of police in Kashgar Old City, was amongst those who contributed to Muhiti's educational push. He raised funds and founded a school in Qaziriq, his native village. The Uyghur Enlightenment Association issued ''New Life'', which published a series of articles dealing with significance of the Uyghur etnonym to its readers. The activity of the Uyghur Enlightenment Association raised suspicion amongst the Soviet officials who become worried about the rise of Uyghur nationalism. Meanwhile, surviving officials of the ETR began to assemble in
Kabul Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. Located in the eastern half of the country, it is also a municipality, forming part of the Kabul Province. The city is divided for administration into #Districts, 22 municipal districts. A ...
,
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
, where they lobbied the Afghan government and certain embassies, most notably the
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
, for backing. Japanese Ambassador Kitada Masamoto provided audience for these anti-communist emigres. In mid 1935, Kitada was visited by
Muhammad Amin Bughra Muhammad Amin Bughra (also Muḥammad Amīn Bughra; , ; ), sometimes known by his Han name Mao Deming () and his Turkish name Mehmet Emin Buğra (1901–1965), was an Uyghur Muslim leader who planned to set up a sovereign state, the First Eas ...
, a former
Khotan Hotan (also known by #Etymology, other names) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region in Northwestern China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become an ...
emir. Bughra submitted the ambassador a detailed plan about establishing the East Turkestan Republic under Japanese sponsorship, which would in return for independence, give Japan special economic and political privileges. He proposed Muhiti as future leader of the proposed puppet state. Muhiti became the focal point of the opposition to the Sheng's government. From the middle of 1936, he and his supporters began to propagate the idea of creating an "independent Uyghur state". In this case, he was supported by Muslim religious leaders and influential people from Xinjiang. Muhiti, having entered into contact with the Soviet consul in Kashgar Smirnov, even tried to get weapons from the Soviet Union, but his appeal was rejected. Then, by contacting former Dungan opponents, in early April 1937, Muhiti was able to raise an uprising against the Xinjiang authorities. However, only two regiments of the 6th Uygur Division, stationed near Kashgar, came out in his defence, while the other two regiments declared their loyalty to the Sheng's government. In Kashgar, the tensions were high. Muhiti and his circle increasingly clashed with the pro-Soviet elements, among them Qadir Haji. Hoja-Niyaz's associate Mansur Effendi arrived in Kashgar in 1935 in order to seize control over the finances of the Uyghur Enlightenment Association. He failed to do so, but succeeded in appointing a Chinese communist to the editorship of the ''New Life'', thus neutralising it as the anti-government organ. Kashgar's qadi Abdulghafur Damulla, who was seen as close to Qadir Haji, was assassinated in May 1936. Soviet General Consul Garegin Apresov visited Muhiti in Kashgar and accused him of seeking Japanese support. Urged by the Soviets, Sheng's government sent a peacekeeping mission to Kashgar to resolve the conflict. The negotiations, however, did not take place. The Soviets tried to contact
Ma Hushan Ma Hushan (Xiao'erjing: , zh, t=馬虎山, s=马虎山, first=t, p=Mǎ Hǔshān; 1910 – 1954) was a Chinese Muslim warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Zhongying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of Souther ...
, new commander of the Dungan 36th Division, via
Ma Zhongying Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying (, Xiao'erjing: ; c. 1910 or 1908 – after 1936), nickname Commander Ga (尕司令, lit. youngster commander), was a Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. His birth name was Ma Buying (). Ma ...
, to disarm Muhiti's rebels. However, Muhiti, with 17 of his associates fled to British India after Sheng summoned him to the Third Congress of People's Representatives in 1937.


Life in exile

Muhiti left for
British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in South Asia. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another ...
on April 2, 1937, crossing into
Ladakh Ladakh () is a region administered by India as a union territory and constitutes an eastern portion of the larger Kashmir region that has been the subject of a Kashmir#Kashmir dispute, dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947 and India an ...
and by-passing the
Karakoram Pass The Karakoram Pass () is a mountain pass between India and China in the Karakoram Range. It is the highest pass on the ancient caravan route between Leh in Ladakh and Yarkant County, Yarkand in the Tarim Basin. The name 'Karakoram' comes from ...
by going up the
Karakash River The Karakash or Black Jade River, also spelled ''Karakax'' (, , Қарақаш Дәряси), is a river in the Xinjiang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China that originates in Aksai Chin. It passes through the historical settlemen ...
and to
Aksai Chin Aksai Chin is a region administered by China partly in Hotan County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang, and partly in Rutog County, Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region, Tibet, and constituting the easternmost portion of the larger Kashmir regio ...
and then following the road through
Chang La Chang La is a high mountain pass in Ladakh at an elevation of in the Greater Himalaya between Leh and the Shyok River valley. The Chang La, on Leh to Pangong Lake road, lies on the Leh-Karu- Sakti- Zingral-Chang La-Durbuk-Tangtse-Pangong La ...
arrived in
Leh Leh () is a city in Indian-administered Ladakh in the Kashmir#Kashmir_dispute, disputed Kashmir region. The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute is supported by the WP:TE ...
, where he turned up on 27 April. Around four weeks later he arrived in
Srinagar Srinagar (; ) is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region.The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute is supported by the tertiary ...
. He went on pilgrimage to
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
in January 1938. After Muhiti's flight, a coalition between Hoja-Niyaz and Sheng broke up. A new
rebellion Rebellion is an uprising that resists and is organized against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a ...
started in Kashgar led by the two of Muhiti's officers Kichik Akhund and 'Abd al-Niyas and supported by Dungans of the 36th Division, now commanded by
Ma Hushan Ma Hushan (Xiao'erjing: , zh, t=馬虎山, s=马虎山, first=t, p=Mǎ Hǔshān; 1910 – 1954) was a Chinese Muslim warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Zhongying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of Souther ...
. Abdul Niyaz succeeded Muhiti and was proclaimed a general. Niyaz took
Yarkand Yarkant County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also Shache County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also SASM/GNC ro ...
and moved towards Kashgar, eventually capturing it. Those with pro-Soviet inclinations were executed and thus new Muslim administration was established. Simultaneously, the uprising spread amongst the Kirghiz near
Kucha Kucha or Kuche (also: ''Kuçar'', ''Kuchar''; , Кучар; zh, t= 龜茲, p=Qiūcí, zh, t= 庫車, p=Kùchē; ) was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the northern edge of what is now the Taklam ...
and
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
. After capturing Kashgar, Niyaz's forces started to move towards
Karashar Karasahr or Karashar (), which was originally known in the Tocharian languages as ''Ārśi'' (or Arshi), Qarašähär, or Agni or the Chinese derivative Yanqi ( zh, s=焉耆, p=Yānqí, w=Yen-ch'i), is an ancient town on the Silk Road and the capi ...
, receiving assistance from the local population along the way. In order to jointly fight against the Soviets and Chinese, Niyaz and Ma Hushan signed a secret agreement on 15 May. Ma Hushan used the opportunity and moved from
Khotan Hotan (also known by #Etymology, other names) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region in Northwestern China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become an ...
to take over Kashgar from the rebels in June, as promulgated by the agreement. However, 5,000 Soviet troops, including airborne and armoured vehicles were marching towards southern Xinjiang on Sheng's invitation along with Sheng's forces and
Dungan Dungan may refer to: * Dungan people, a group of Muslim people of Hui origin ** Dungan language ** Dungan, sometimes used to refer to Hui Chinese people generally * Dungan Mountains in Sibi District, Pakistan * Donegan, an Irish surname, sometimes ...
troops. The Turkic rebels were defeated and Kashgar retaken. After the defeat of the Turkic rebels, the Soviets also stopped maintaining the 36th Division. Ma Hushan's administration collapsed. By October 1937, along with the collapse of the Turkic rebellion and the Tungan satrapy, the Muslim control over the southern part of the province ended. Soon afterwards,
Yulbars Khan Yulbars Khan (, (يولبارس خان), 'Tiger'; or ; 13 August 1889 – 27 July 1971), courtesy name Jingfu (景福), was a Uyghur chieftain and Kuomintang general during the Chinese Civil War. He entered the service in the Kumul Khanate of ...
troops in
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
were also defeated ( upon starting of Rebellion of 6th Uyghur Division in Kashgar in April 1937 rebels appealed to Yulbars Khan to cut off communications between Xinjiang and China through Kumul or Hami). Thus, Sheng became the ruler of the whole province for the first time. The uprising was crushed after the Soviet intervention. Ma Hushan also escaped to British India after the rebellion was defeated. The presence of Muhiti and Ma Hushan in British India was interpreted as evidence of British interference in Xinjiang politics, which led to Chinese closing off the two main trade offices in India, in
Gilgit Gilgit (; Shina language, Shina: ; ) is a city in Pakistani-administered Gilgit-Baltistan, Gilgit–Baltistan in the disputed Kashmir region.The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kas ...
and Leh.Trade office in Leh, which with years lost its importance, remained closed, while in Gilgit was soon reopened. After arriving in British India, Muhiti left for
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
,
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
and was reported to be in
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
in 1940, where he founded the Independence Society, which had a goal of establishing East Turkestan, opposed both to the Soviet Union and China. Muhiti once again gained the Japanese confidence for cooperation in early 1939. The next year he went to China, ending an extensive tour there in
Suiyuan Province Suiyuan () was a historical province of China. Suiyuan's capital was Guisui (now Hohhot). The abbreviation was (pinyin: ). The area Suiyuan covered is approximated today by the prefecture-level cities of Hohhot, Baotou, Wuhai, Ordos, Bayan ...
(present
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's border with the country of Mongolia. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a small section of C ...
of China) in October 1940. While in China, Muhiti promoted a pan-Muslim movement under the auspices of the Japan-Islam society, previously established in
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
. The goal of the society was cultural and economic cooperation between Japan and Muslims. Muhiti planned to establish the Xinjiang Uyghur Society, seated in Tokyo with its branches all across Inner Asia. However, the Japanese support for Muhiti was fruitless. Muhiti died in the Japanese-occupied
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
in 1944 from a
brain hemorrhage The brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It consists of nervous tissue and is typically located in the head (cephalization), usually near organs for ...
, and is buried in a Muslim cemetery there.


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* {{DEFAULTSORT:Muhiti, Mahmut 1887 births 1944 deaths Chinese military officers Chinese Muslims Uyghur people Chinese anti-communists Chinese collaborators with Imperial Japan Qing dynasty Muslims Chinese expatriates in India Chinese exiles