M23 Movement
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The March 23 Movement (), often abbreviated as M23 and also known as the Congolese Revolutionary Army (), is a Congolese Rwandan-backed rebel paramilitary group. Based in the eastern regions of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
, it operates mainly in the province of
North Kivu North Kivu () is a Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, province bordering Lake Kivu in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital city is Goma. Spanning approximately 59,483 square kilometers with a population esti ...
, which borders both
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
and
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
. M23 is a member of the
Congo River Alliance The Congo River Alliance (; AFC) is a Congolese rebel coalition led by former Independent National Electoral Commission President Corneille Nangaa. The coalition consists of armed opposition groups and political parties that seek to overthrow the ...
, a coalition of rebel groups in eastern DRC. M23 was established in 2012 by former members of the
National Congress for the Defence of the People The National Congress for the Defence of the People (, CNDP) was a Congolese Rwandan-backed paramilitary rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo during the Kivu conflict. Established on 26 July 2006 by Laurent Nkunda ...
(CNDP), a Rwandan-backed rebel group largely composed of Rwandan-Congolese fighters. These combatants had previously integrated into the
Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Armed (May, 1941–1964) was an American Thoroughbred gelding race horse who was the American Horse of the Year in 1947 and Champion Older Male Horse in both 1946 and 1947. He was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame ...
(FARDC) under the terms of a 2009 peace agreement, which also called for the transformation of the CNDP into a political party, reintegration of refugees, and incorporation of CNDP personnel into government roles. However, local opposition to the CNDP's leadership—accused of past
human rights violations Human rights are universally recognized moral principles or norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both national and international laws. These rights are considered inherent and inalienable, meaning t ...
—impeded the full implementation of the agreement. On 6 May 2012, a group of these ex-CNDP fighters mutinied, forming M23 and citing the government's failure to uphold the peace accord. The group launched strikes during its first
rebellion Rebellion is an uprising that resists and is organized against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a ...
against the Congolese government that led to the displacement of large numbers of people. On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of
Goma Goma is a city in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province; it is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with the Bukumu Chiefdo ...
, the capital of North Kivu with a population of a million people, but was persuaded to withdraw from the city by the
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), French: ''Conférence Internationale sur la Région des Grands Lacs (CIRGL)'', is an intergovernmental organization of African countries in the African Great Lakes region. Membership Th ...
(ICGLR) because the Congolese government had finally agreed to negotiate with the rebel group. In late 2012, Congolese troops, along with UN peacekeeping troops, retook Goma, and the M23 announced a ceasefire and said that it wanted to resume peace talks. A
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
report found that
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
created and commanded the M23 rebel group during the 2012 operations (in 2024, when M23 resurfaced again, another UN report finds direct support from the Rwandan military). Rwanda ceased its support due to international pressure and the military defeat by the Congolese military and the UN peacekeeping forces in 2013. In 2017, M23 remnants resumed their insurgency in the Congo, although it was largely a low-level insurgency. However, the M23 reorganized in 2022 and launched a subsequent offensive, which eventually resulted in the capture of the Congolese border town of Bunagana by the rebels. In November 2022, M23 rebels got close to the city of Goma and forced about 180,000 people to leave their homes after the Congolese Army had withdrawn from the region near the village of Kibumba. In June 2023,
Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Headquartered in New York City, the group investigates and reports on issues including War crime, war crimes, crim ...
reported human rights abuses by M23 rebels in the Congo, including unlawful killings, rape and other war crimes. Allegations implicate Rwandan support for these actions, bringing concerns about war crimes and making the humanitarian situation worse in the region. The
United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...
encouraged sanctions against the M23 leaders and implicated Rwandan officials. As of January 2025, the group occupies various major towns in eastern North Kivu including Bunagana, Kiwanja,
Kitchanga Kitchanga, also known as Kitshanga, is a town and a camp for Congolese Internally Displaced People (IDPs) strategically positioned between Masisi and Rutshuru territories of the North Kivu Province, with a vantage point overlooking Lake Kivu in ...
, Rubaya,
Rutshuru Rutshuru is a town located in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and is headquarters of an administrative district, the Rutshuru Territory. The town lies in the western branch of the Albertine Rift between L ...
, and the city of
Goma Goma is a city in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province; it is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with the Bukumu Chiefdo ...
.


Background

Since its formation, the
Congrès national pour la défense du peuple The National Congress for the Defence of the People (, CNDP) was a Congolese Rwandan-backed paramilitary rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo during the Kivu conflict. Established on 26 July 2006 by Laurent Nkunda i ...
(CNDP) has been widely recognized as having received substantial support from the
Rwandan government Politically, Rwanda is a ''de facto'' one-party state ruled by the Rwandan Patriotic Front and its leader Paul Kagame since the end of the 1994 genocide against members of the Tutsi ethnic group. Although Rwanda is nominally democratic, elect ...
. Initial backing dates to 2003, when
Laurent Nkunda Laurent Nkunda Mihigo (born Laurent Nkundabatware; February 2, 1967) is a Congolese former military officer and warlord who operated in the North Kivu Province during the Kivu conflict. Nkunda, who is a Congolese Tutsi, initially fought as a re ...
, a former
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
rebel affiliated with the
Rwandan Patriotic Front The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF–Inkotanyi; , FPR) is the ruling political party in Rwanda. The RPF was founded in December 1987 by Rwandan Tutsi in exile in Uganda because of the ethnic violence that had occurred during the Rwandan Hutu Revo ...
(RPF), was reportedly pressured by Rwandan authorities not to integrate into the Congolese national army following his establishment of the political movement ''Synergie pour la paix et la concorde''. Prior to that, Nkunda had served as brigade commander for the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie–Goma (RCD-Goma) in
Kisangani Kisangani (), formerly Stanleyville (), is the capital of Tshopo, Tshopo Province, located on the Congo River in the eastern part of the central Congo Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the country's fifth-most populous urban a ...
during 2002, when the group was implicated in the May 2002 massacre of over 160 civilians. By 2005, the Forces armées de la République démocratique du Congo (FARDC) was undergoing ''brassage'', a national military integration program designed to unify former rebel groups into a restructured national army. This program mandated a 45-day training period and redeployment to regions outside prior areas of operation, while also offering the option of demobilization. Many ex-RCD-Goma combatants, reluctant to serve outside the Kivu provinces, defected to Nkunda's emerging armed faction. By the end of 2005, a significant number of soldiers from the 82nd Brigade had joined Nkunda, along with elements from the 81st and 83rd Brigades. The Bwiza military camp became a strategic center for the training of senior officers aligned with Nkunda, including former ''brassage'' defectors. Training programs such as the Senior Officer Leadership Course (SOLEC) and the Officer Management Course were established, with the latter reportedly supported by materials provided by the Rwandan government. In early 2006, Nkunda expanded his military and political base by incorporating General
Bosco Ntaganda Bosco Ntaganda (born 5 November 1973) is a Congolese former rebel leader and convicted war criminal. He was the former military chief of staff of the National Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), a rebel that group operated in the No ...
, the former chief of staff of the Union des Patriotes Congolais (UPC), who was soon appointed
Chief of Staff The title chief of staff (or head of staff) identifies the leader of a complex organization such as the armed forces, institution, or body of persons and it also may identify a principal staff officer (PSO), who is the coordinator of the supportin ...
of the CNDP. Nkunda subsequently merged his political platform, ''Synergie pour la paix et la concorde'', with his military faction, the ''Conseil militaire pour la défense du peuple'' (CMDP). On 26 July 2006, the CNDP was officially formed, with Nkunda assuming the dual role of Chairman and Supreme Commander. Among the CNDP's principal financiers was
Tribert Rujugiro Ayabatwa Tribert Rujugiro Ayabatwa ( – 16 April 2024) was a Rwandan entrepreneur, best known as the founder of the Pan African Tobacco Group, the largest tobacco company in Africa. In his later years Ayabatwa fell out with Rwandan President Paul Kaga ...
, a Rwandan presidential advisor and founder of the Rwandan Investment Group. In addition to providing funding, Rujugiro maintained substantial landholdings in CNDP-controlled territories, including cattle ranches in Kilolirwe, where Nkunda established his military base. The CNDP leveraged these commercial assets to sustain its military operations and regional influence.


Escalation of support and regional strategic interests

Initially, Rwandan support to the CNDP was characterized by limited logistical and advisory assistance. However, this evolved significantly during the 2008 military escalations. Rwanda's direct involvement became increasingly evident, particularly during operations such as the CNDP's offensive against the Rumangabo military camp and the advance toward Goma. Despite reports of internal tensions—Nkunda himself reportedly grew uneasy with Rwanda's increasing influence—Rwandan troops were deployed in support of the CNDP's strategic objectives. Although some analysts have emphasized the economic motivations behind Rwanda's involvement, a broader strategic calculus appears to underpin Rwandan engagement in eastern Congo. Rwanda has consistently viewed the provinces of North and
South Kivu South Kivu (; ) is one of Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital city, capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is ...
as within its sphere of influence, citing security concerns and geopolitical interests. A central factor in this engagement has been the threat posed by the
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda The Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (, FDLR; , IDKR) is an armed rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. As an ethnic Hutu group opposed to the ethnic Tutsi influence, the FDLR is one of the last fact ...
(FDLR), whose presence in eastern Congo provided a longstanding rationale for Rwandan intervention. From 2004 to 2009, CNDP activities were justified, in part, by the need to neutralize the FDLR. Subsequent repatriation programs have seen more than 4,500 FDLR combatants returned to Rwanda, significantly diminishing the group's operational capabilities. Meanwhile, the Rwandan economy has benefited from regional trade, including mineral exports—some estimates suggest that 10 to 30 percent of Rwandan mineral trade may involve smuggled resources from the DRC. Rwandan commercial and military actors have also been active in the Kivu provinces, participating in sectors such as livestock, fuel distribution, and other forms of commerce.


Leadership transition and integration into the FARDC

On 4 January 2009, Ntaganda announced the removal of Nkunda as CNDP leader, citing mismanagement. Nkunda, taken by surprise, was unable to prevent the leadership change. On 16 January 2009, Ntaganda declared the CNDP's integration into the Congolese army at a ceremony held at the Ihusi Hotel in Goma, attended by both Rwandan and Congolese government officials. Although the publicized aim of the Rwanda–DRC agreement was to initiate joint operations against the FDLR, a key objective was the consolidation and formal integration of the CNDP. On 22 January 2009, Nkunda crossed into Rwandan territory at Kabuhanga, where he was arrested by Rwandan military officials. His associates, including Colonel Sultani Makenga, were instructed to proceed with the integration process. Soon thereafter, Rwandan and Congolese forces launched Operation ''Umoja Wetu'' ("Our Unity"), which involved the deployment of approximately 4,000 Rwandan troops into eastern DRC to combat the FDLR. Simultaneously, former CNDP officers were integrated into the FARDC and assigned key military positions, with assurances that they would remain stationed in the Kivus. On 23 March 2009, the Congolese government signed agreements with the CNDP and other armed factions, formalizing the integration of CNDP forces into the national army and marking the official dissolution of the CNDP. Key provisions of the accord included provisions for prisoner releases, the transformation of the CNDP into a political party, the reintegration of refugees, and the integration of CNDP members into government institutions and the Congolese army.


Operations


CNDP integration and the formation of the M23 rebellion

Following the integration of the CNDP into FARDC, the Congolese government initially regarded this arrangement as a temporary solution to the ongoing instability in the eastern provinces. However, the integration process inadvertently consolidated the CNDP's influence within the national army. CNDP leaders, notably Ntaganda, utilized their positions to accumulate wealth through mineral smuggling, embezzlement, and unauthorized taxation systems. Moreover, the CNDP leadership strategically co-opted officers from rival armed groups to broaden its base of power. Efforts by the Congolese government to deploy former CNDP commanders beyond the Kivu provinces, initiated in September 2010, met with significant resistance. Former CNDP members justified their refusal by citing concerns over security, perceived anti-Tutsi discrimination, and unresolved hostilities with the FDLR. In response, Ntaganda sought alliances with ex-combatants from the Patriotes Résistants Congolais (PARECO), a group historically opposed to the CNDP. Talks held in
Minova Minova is a town in the Kalehe Territory, South Kivu Province, DRC. It is an important business center for farm-fishery products. It is very close to Idjwi Island, Masisi Territory, Lake Kivu on its North Western shore, and is only 45 km from ...
, South Kivu, in late 2010, aimed to forge a coalition of disaffected officers who accused the national military leadership of corruption. In February 2011, the government launched a regimentation initiative to streamline the military structure and eliminate parallel command systems. This effort inadvertently strengthened Ntaganda's network, as he positioned loyal officers in key military posts. Exploiting the weak administrative oversight in Kinshasa, former CNDP officers retained substantial autonomy within the national army. Frictions within the CNDP ranks intensified, particularly between Ntaganda and Colonel Sultani Makenga. At the same time, Kinshasa attempted to promote Colonel Innocent Gahizi as a counterweight to Ntaganda, exacerbating internal divisions. A United Nations report from December 2011 indicated that members of the CNDP, PARECO, and ''Forces Républicaines Fédéralistes'' (FRF) feared that the upcoming 2011–2012 electoral cycle would marginalize them within the FARDC. As a preemptive measure, they sought to entrench their influence by securing command appointments during the regimentation process. The controversial elections of November 2011, widely criticized for electoral fraud, created an opening for international donors to demand military and institutional reforms. In response, the Congolese government moved to dismantle the CNDP network. A pivotal meeting in February 2012 between Presidential Advisor Augustin Katumba Mwanke and Rwandan officials included a proposal to offer economic incentives to secure Rwandan cooperation in deploying ex-CNDP officers outside the Kivus.The first signs of rebellion appeared in January 2012, when a mutiny attempt in
Bukavu Bukavu is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu P ...
failed. The government responded by testing the loyalty of CNDP-affiliated officers through a series of military parades and reform workshops. Ntaganda, aware of the threat posed by these developments and increasingly targeted by the
International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and International court, international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute ...
(ICC)—especially following the March 2012 conviction of
Thomas Lubanga Dyilo Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (born 29 December 1960) is a convicted war criminal from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the first person convicted by the International Criminal Court (ICC). He founded and led the Union of Congolese Patri ...
—refused to comply. In the weeks that followed, clandestine meetings among ex-CNDP officers resulted in limited defections across the Kivus. These early efforts were largely ineffective, as many mutineers expressed dissatisfaction over unequal resource distribution. Of the 365 soldiers who mutinied in South Kivu, the majority either surrendered or rejoined FARDC. A subsequent wave of defections in North Kivu also faltered. Several commanders capitulated, while others retreated into the
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
highlands, where they urgently began recruiting new combatants. On 8 April 2012, Congolese and Rwandan officials convened in
Gisenyi Gisenyi, historically rendered as Kisenyi, is the second largest city in Rwanda, located in the Rubavu district in Rwanda's Western Province. Gisenyi is contiguous with Goma as it was formerly also part of now Democratic Republic of the Congo, t ...
and reached a tentative agreement allowing Ntaganda to remain in Masisi while an integration commission assessed the situation. However, President Joseph Kabila reversed this decision the following day, vowing to prosecute all deserters and enforce the nationwide redeployment of CNDP officers. This move reportedly alienated Rwandan officials, who, according to testimony from Ugandan authorities and M23 defectors, had covertly supported the emerging mutiny since 2011.
Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Headquartered in New York City, the group investigates and reports on issues including War crime, war crimes, crim ...
accused the mutiny of committing widespread war crimes, including
summary execution In civil and military jurisprudence, summary execution is the putting to death of a person accused of a crime without the benefit of a free and fair trial. The term results from the legal concept of summary justice to punish a summary offense, a ...
s,
rape Rape is a type of sexual assault involving sexual intercourse, or other forms of sexual penetration, carried out against a person without consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person ...
, and forced recruitment, asserting that some Rwandan authorities could be complicit due to their continued support for mutiny's activities. In response to the mutiny, President Joseph Kabila called for Ntaganda's arrest on 11 April 2012. Facing mounting military pressure, the mutineers relocated from Masisi to areas closer to the Rwandan border on 4 May 2012, with Rwanda reportedly facilitating their withdrawal. On 6 May, Colonel Makenga and his officers formally defected, and two days later, the new rebel movement—March 23 Movement (M23)—was officially announced. The group cited the Congolese government's failure to implement the terms of the 23 March 2009 peace agreement as its principal grievance. M23's political leadership was largely composed of former CNDP officials, with Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero appointed as the political coordinator. Reports indicated that several key positions within the M23 hierarchy were filled under Rwandan influence. In August 2012, M23's leadership structure was formalized, with Runiga appointed as president, and Makenga heading its military wing, the Revolutionary Army of Congo (''Armée Révolutionnaire du Congo'', ARC). Makenga was later sanctioned by the United States for orchestrating atrocities against civilians.


Motives

The M23 is made up primarily of Tutsis and opposes the
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda The Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (, FDLR; , IDKR) is an armed rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. As an ethnic Hutu group opposed to the ethnic Tutsi influence, the FDLR is one of the last fact ...
(FDLR), a Rwandan
Hutu The Hutu (), also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic group native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda where they form one of the principal ethnic groups alongside the Tutsi and the Great L ...
rebel group, as well as
Mai-Mai The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
militias—local community-based armed groups supported by the Congolese government. However, M23's operations have been controversial, with allegations that it and Rwanda have used the presence of the FDLR as a "justification for continued military and political interference in the DRC". The
International Crisis Group The International Crisis Group (ICG; also known as the Crisis Group) is a global non-profit, non-governmental organisation founded in 1995. It is a think tank, used by policymakers and academics, conducting research and analysis on global crises. ...
has posited that, while the FDLR remains "too weak to imperil Rwanda's government", its continued existence functions as a rationalization for M23's activities and Rwandan involvement in eastern Congo. FDLR leaders have historically resisted repatriation, citing concerns over imprisonment, the forfeiture of political clout, and political exclusion. Some have demanded an Inter-Rwandan Dialogue involving Rwanda's ruling party, the
Rwandan Patriotic Front The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF–Inkotanyi; , FPR) is the ruling political party in Rwanda. The RPF was founded in December 1987 by Rwandan Tutsi in exile in Uganda because of the ethnic violence that had occurred during the Rwandan Hutu Revo ...
(RPF), and opposition groups in exile. Political analyst
Jason Stearns Jason K. Stearns (born October 31, 1976) is an American writer who worked for ten years in the Congo, including three years during the Second Congo War. He first traveled to the Congo in 2001 to work for a local human rights organization, Héri ...
has contended that while ethnically charged hate speech and violence against the
Congolese Tutsi The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Provinces of DRC, Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in ...
community have been longstanding issues, there was no significant increase in such trends before the M23 rebellion, which, rather than easing ethnic tensions, exacerbated communal divisions. Paradoxically, Rwandan authorities have inconsistently extended protection to Congolese Tutsi refugees within their own borders and both CNDP and M23 were documented by the
United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...
and Human Rights Watch forcibly recruiting civilians, including children, from Rwandan refugee camps, with Rwandan police in 2018 shooting and killing at least twelve Congolese Tutsi refugees protesting food ration cuts. Despite initially claiming to fight for human rights, democracy, and good governance, M23's actions—including forced displacement, war crimes, and resource exploitation—have contradicted these stated objectives.


Mutiny

The rebels were active in North Kivu province, fighting government forces in the
Rutshuru Rutshuru is a town located in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and is headquarters of an administrative district, the Rutshuru Territory. The town lies in the western branch of the Albertine Rift between L ...
and
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
territories. On 6 June 2012 a Congolese spokesman reported that 200 M23 soldiers had died in the mutiny and that over 370 soldiers had surrendered to FARDC, including 25 Rwandan citizens. On 8 July 2012, Colonel Sultani Makenga announced that a government offensive to dislodge the group from their hideouts had failed, and that they had in turn captured several towns towards
Goma Goma is a city in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province; it is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with the Bukumu Chiefdo ...
, the provincial capital.


Late 2012 offensive


Nyiragongo Territory

The M23's military wing, the Revolutionary Army of Congo (''Armée Révolutionnaire du Congo'', ARC), began its rebellion in March 2012 in
Masisi Territory Masisi Territory is a territory which is located within the North Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its political headquarters are located in the town of Masisi. Overview Masisi territory has an area of 4734 km. Masisi Terr ...
. Following tactical reversals in Kitshanga, the M23 regrouped and commenced strategic offensives across the Kibumba ''groupement'' of the
Bukumu Chiefdom The Bukumu Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bukumu'') is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in the Nyiragongo Territory of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province in the eastern region o ...
, situated in
Nyiragongo Territory Nyiragongo Territory is a territory in North Kivu in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering an area of 333 square kilometers, it had a population of 338,966 as of 2022. The territory is bordered to the north by the Bwisha Chiefdo ...
. On the night of 26 April 2012, M23 fighters entered Nyiragongo Territory through the Kibumba ''groupement'', targeting areas such as Katare, Burambo, Hehukalangala, and Kibiriga. After encountering resistance in the village of Kasizi, the group split into factions, with some heading toward Njerima and others crossing into Rwanda's
Kinigi Kinigi is a town in Northern Province, Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few d ...
region to train young recruits. The M23 then expanded their operations, systematically attacking
Rutshuru Territory Rutshuru Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), with headquarters is the town of Rutshuru. The territory is mountainous, inclu ...
and other parts of Nyiragongo, inching closer to Goma. By July 2012, M23 had commandeered key strongholds in Rutshuru Territory, encompassing Bweza, Jomba, Kisigari, Bukoma, Kiwanja, and Rugari. This expansion was accompanied by widespread human rights abuses, including the forced recruitment of
child soldiers Children in the military, including state armed forces, non-state armed groups, and other military organizations, may be trained for combat, assigned to support roles, such as cooks, porters/couriers, or messengers, or used for tactical adv ...
,
sexual violence Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted Human sexual activity, sexual act, an attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion, or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent, by any individual regardless of ...
, and the systematic looting of villages. In November, M23 intensified its activities in Nyiragongo Territory. On 15 November, Rwandan and M23 forces launched coordinated attacks on localities such as Kasizi, Hehu, Kibiriga, and Gikeri. Civilians bore the brunt of the violence, with multiple reports of rapes, kidnappings, and killings. On Sunday, 18 November, Rwandan soldiers cross the bridge and meet the M23 to enter Kanjanja (a city located on the Rwanda-Congo border in the Kibati ''groupement'' near Kilimanyoka, which caused the escape of survivors from Rutshuru, Kibumba and Buhumba who will settle in the Kanyaruchinya camp and the Mugunga camp. M23 subsequently decimated the Kanyaruchinya camp, forcing over 50,000 displaced people to relocate to Mugunga. That same day, a bomb thrown by M23 killed two civilians, while other residents faced summary executions. Throughout their advance, the rebels engaged in systematic looting, sexual violence, and forced recruitment. On 19 November, at 2:45 p.m., Rwandan military contingents breached the border in the Munigi ''groupement'' of Bukumu Chiefdom. On 20 November, M23 was observed systematically expropriating assets from displaced people in the Kibati ''groupement'' of Bukumu Chiefdom, including a documented case involving Joseph Nyandwi, a 54-year-old resident.


Masisi Territory

After taking control of Rutshuru Territory, M23 forces gained access to the headquarters of the
Independent National Electoral Commission Independent National Electoral Commission may refer to: *Independent National Electoral Commission (Burundi) *Independent National Electoral Commission (Democratic Republic of the Congo) *Independent National Electoral Commission (Guinea) The Inde ...
(''Commission Électorale Nationale Indépendante''; CENI). They removed electoral kits, which the group claimed was to secure the materials. However, critics argue that this act was intended to enable the potential fraudulent registration of Rwandan nationals, ostensibly to manipulate electoral outcomes, thus raising concerns about the subversion of democratic integrity. The insurgents' operations in Masisi Territory were characterized by pervasive atrocities. Both isolated and
mass killing Mass killing is a concept which has been proposed by genocide scholars who wish to define incidents of non-combat killing which are perpetrated by a government or a state. A mass killing is commonly defined as the killing of group members without ...
s transpired, particularly during clashes in key locations such as Mbuzi, Ntamugenga, Jomba, Bunagana, Kiwanja, Vitshumbi, and Nyamilima. The full scale of these massacres remains unknown. Civilians bore the heaviest toll, with violence including sexual assaults, verbal and telephone threats against local leaders, and indiscriminate gunfire in residential areas and on roads.


Lubero and Beni territories

In
Lubero Territory Lubero Territory is a territory in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Internally displaced persons On 10 June, 2014, the administrator of Lubero Territory, Joy Bokele, requested assistance for six hundred displaced households who sou ...
, M23's growth was aided by FARDC defections. Key defectors included Colonel Albert Kahasha, also called Foka Mike, deputy commander of the 808th FARDC Regiment, who joined the Mai-Mai PARECO group under La Fontaine in Bunyatenge, south of Lubero, in June 2012. Another prominent defector, Colonel Yusufu Eric Mboneza, also from the 808th Regiment, departed with 10 soldiers to join La Fontaine's forces in Kasugho. Similarly, Lieutenant-Colonel Jaques Tahanga Nyolo, nicknamed Nyoro and a former RCD-K/ML leader, defected in July 2012 to regroup with M23-affiliated forces near Graben Park on the road to Kasindi, near Uganda. Major Paluku Kombi Hiller, another ex-RCD-K/ML member, defected mid-2012, was later declared a "General", and focused on recruiting youth for M23-aligned militias. These defections weakened FARDC's control over Lubero, allowing M23 to solidify its influence and recruit more fighters. They escalated their campaign through strategic abductions and attacks. On 7 July, the administrator of Lubero Territory and the city chief of Kirumba were abducted by La Fontaine and Kahasha's group and released after enduring a week of harsh captivity.
Beni Territory Beni Territory, also known as Oicha Territory, is a territory of North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It's administrative center is the town of Oicha. It has been the site of fighting during the Allied Democratic Forces insurgency be ...
experienced increasing instability with the establishment of the Union for the Rehabilitation of Democracy in Congo (''Union pour la Réhabilitation de la Démocratie au Congo''; URDC) on 20 October. Led by Tahanga Nyolo and allied with M23, this faction established a foothold in the
Rwenzori The Rwenzori (also known as the Ruwenzori, Rwenzururu or Rwenjura) are a range of mountains in eastern equatorial Africa, located on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The highest peak of the Ruwenzori reaches , ...
region. Serious human rights violations occurred, including the kidnapping of three Catholic priests from Mbau Parish on 19 October, whose whereabouts remain unknown. When M23 occupied Goma on 19 November, Tahanga Nyolo and Hiller Paluku, along with their forces, joined in the city.


Goma

In August 2012, the
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), French: ''Conférence Internationale sur la Région des Grands Lacs (CIRGL)'', is an intergovernmental organization of African countries in the African Great Lakes region. Membership Th ...
brokered a fragile truce between M23 and FARDC. However, skirmishes continued to undermine the tenuous ceasefire, which effectively collapsed in mid-October. On 9 November, the Congolese government issued a 14-day ultimatum for M23 to disarm. In response, M23 launched renewed offensives in Rutshuru Territory, targeting key locations such as Kibumba, Mboga, and Ruhondo. On 17 November, the rebels seized control of the Kibumba ''groupement'' in
Bukumu Chiefdom The Bukumu Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bukumu'') is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in the Nyiragongo Territory of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province in the eastern region o ...
, despite
MONUSCO The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or MONUSCO (an acronym based on its French name ), is a United Nations peacekeeping force in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A planned withdraw ...
air interventions, and advanced towards Goma. Accusations of Rwandan involvement escalated, with Congolese officials asserting that Rwanda was backing M23 militarily. M23 forces had advanced to the outskirts of Goma by 18 November and warned MONUSCO not to support government troops. Congolese government spokesman
Lambert Mende Omalanga Lambert Mende Omalanga (born 11 February 1953) is the former minister of communications of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He is best known for saying that an overturned fuel truck that exploded and killed 230 people was trying to overtake ...
accused Rwanda of backing the rebels. "The DRC has "not yet declared war, but we are ready to face it. This is our country". That Sunday afternoon, Goma was reportedly calm, with no gunfire or significant incidents, as confirmed by North Kivu Vice-Governor Feller Lutaichirwa. He stated that military authorities chose to retreat to "prevent a bloodbath" in Goma, described as a "displaced persons' city, trapped" between
Lake Kivu Lake Kivu is one of the African Great Lakes. It lies on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, and is in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift. Lake Kivu empties into the Ruzizi River, which ...
and M23-occupied territory. On 19 November, UN helicopters fired rockets and shells in support of the government to halt the rebel advance toward
Goma International Airport Goma International Airport ( French: ''Aéroport International de Goma''), colloquially known by its acronym AIG based on its French name, is the primary international airport serving Goma, the capital of North Kivu province in the Democratic R ...
. Fighting resumed on Monday afternoon, with exchanges between M23 and FARDC striking a hotel on the city's edge. Gunfire was exchanged in Munigi and Mudga ''groupements'', part of the nearby
Bukumu Chiefdom The Bukumu Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bukumu'') is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in the Nyiragongo Territory of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province in the eastern region o ...
to the north and northwest of the city. This prompted residents to flee south or toward
Gisenyi Gisenyi, historically rendered as Kisenyi, is the second largest city in Rwanda, located in the Rubavu district in Rwanda's Western Province. Gisenyi is contiguous with Goma as it was formerly also part of now Democratic Republic of the Congo, t ...
, the Rwandan border crossing. A Heal Africa hospital worker reported receiving six wounded individuals, some in critical condition, due to shelling at a hotel near the city's edge. Soldiers blocked an AFP photographer from entering the combat zones, where Kalashnikov fire was audible. On 20 November, at approximately 11 a.m., Goma fell to M23 rebels, whose use of
mortars Mortar may refer to: * Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon * Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together * Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind * Mortar, Bihar, a village i ...
,
rocket-propelled grenade A rocket-propelled grenade (RPG), also known colloquially as a rocket launcher, is a Shoulder-fired missile, shoulder-fired anti-tank weapon that launches rockets equipped with a Shaped charge, shaped-charge explosive warhead. Most RPGs can ...
s, and
heavy artillery The formal definition of large-calibre artillery used by the United Nations Register of Conventional Arms (UNROCA) is "guns, howitzers, artillery pieces, combining the characteristics of a gun, howitzer, mortar, or rocket, capable of engaging ...
left nine dead and 64 injured, including civilians. Strategic neighborhoods like Bujovu, Birere, and
Ndosho Ndosho is a neighborhood in the Karisimbi commune of Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was historically an integral part of the adjacent Keshero neighborhood before gaining its own distinct administrative identity. The neigh ...
in the Karisimbi commune were seized rapidly. M23's conduct included the killing of a young boy suspected of
Mai-Mai The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
affiliation in the Ndosho neighborhood. In Murara, four deaths were reported, while three fatalities occurred in Majengo, both in Karisimbi commune. M23 advanced on Goma, while FARDC retreated with minimal resistance. The city was encircled by M23 forces, who entered through Gisenyi, paraded through the streets, and were welcomed by some residents. MONUSCO watched the occupation without intervening, stating that their mandate was limited to protecting the safety of civilians. ''
Jeune Afrique ''Jeune Afrique'' (English: ''Young Africa'') is a French-language pan-African weekly news magazine, founded in 1960 in Tunis and subsequently published in Paris by Jeune Afrique Media Group. It is the most widely read pan-African magazine. It o ...
'' later reported that M23 rebels acquired as well as six artillery pieces (type 26 and BM-type rocket launchers) approximately ~20
shipping container A shipping container is a container with strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large reusable steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitous corrugated box design, corrugated b ...
s filled with arms and ammunitions of various caliber, all of which were abandoned by the FARDC during their retreat from Goma. Congolese president
Joseph Kabila Joseph Kabila Kabange ( , ; born 4 June 1971) is a Congolese politician and former military officer who served as the fourth President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 2001 to 2019. He took office ten days after the assassination o ...
urged Goma's citizens to "resist" the M23 takeover. UN Secretary General
Ban Ki-moon Ban Ki-moon (born 13 June 1944) is a South Korean politician and diplomat who served as the eighth secretary-general of the United Nations between 2007 and 2016. Prior to his appointment as secretary-general, Ban was the South Korean minister ...
criticized the M23 for alleged human rights violations during the takeover, including "intimidation of journalists", and abduction of women and children. Noting that the
First Congo War The First Congo War, also known as Africa's First World War, was a Civil war, civil and international military conflict that lasted from 24 October 1996 to 16 May 1997, primarily taking place in Zaire (which was renamed the Democratic Republi ...
had begun with fighting in the same region, the ''
New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...
'' described the takeover of Goma as "raising serious questions about the stability of Congo as a whole". On 21 November, further atrocities were reported, including the murder of a soldier's wife at the
Katindo Katindo is a neighborhood in the Goma commune of Goma, located in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Strategically located in the northern region of the city, it had an estimated population of 50,860 as of 2014. The neighborhood is si ...
camp entrance. The attack occurred after a dispute with an M23 guard, who used a bayonet to kill her in broad daylight. The same day, the
International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and International court, international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute ...
(ICC) reopened investigations into
Bosco Ntaganda Bosco Ntaganda (born 5 November 1973) is a Congolese former rebel leader and convicted war criminal. He was the former military chief of staff of the National Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), a rebel that group operated in the No ...
and Sylvestre Mudacumura. In response to the escalating crisis, President
Joseph Kabila Joseph Kabila Kabange ( , ; born 4 June 1971) is a Congolese politician and former military officer who served as the fourth President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 2001 to 2019. He took office ten days after the assassination o ...
convened with Rwandan President
Paul Kagame Paul Kagame ( ; born 23 October 1957) is a Rwandan politician and former military officer who has been the President of Rwanda since 2000. He was previously a commander of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel armed force which invaded ...
and Ugandan President
Yoweri Museveni Yoweri Kaguta Museveni Tibuhaburwa (born 15 September 1944) is a Ugandan politician and Officer (armed forces), military officer who is the ninth and current president of Uganda since 1986. As of 2025, he is the third-List of current state lead ...
in
Kampala Kampala (, ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Uganda. The city proper has a population of 1,875,834 (2024) and is divided into the five political divisions of Kampala Central Division, Kampala, Kawempe Division, Kawempe, Makindy ...
. The tripartite summit issued a joint communiqué imploring M23 to relinquish control of Goma. However, M23 refused, demanding direct negotiations with President Kabila as a prerequisite for withdrawal. The
United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...
enacted Resolution 2076 (2012), unequivocally condemning M23's aggression and demanding an immediate cessation of hostilities. The
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...
echoed these calls for an end to violence. Despite mounting international pressure, M23 remained defiant, conditioning its retreat on meeting its political and territorial demands.On 22 November, the FARDC, in cooperation with local
Mai-Mai The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
elements, routed the M23 rebels from the nearby town of
Sake Sake, , or saki, also referred to as Japanese rice wine, is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asi ...
, 27 kilometers from Goma, as they marched towards
Bukavu Bukavu is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu P ...
. Also 22 November, Kabila suspended General Gabriel Amisi's FARDC
commission In-Commission or commissioning may refer to: Business and contracting * Commission (remuneration), a form of payment to an agent for services rendered ** Commission (art), the purchase or the creation of a piece of art most often on behalf of anot ...
because of an inquiry into his alleged role in arms sales to various rebel groups, including the FDLR, in the eastern part of the country, so it implicated M23. That day, M23 soldiers facilitated the
extrajudicial killing An extrajudicial killing (also known as an extrajudicial execution or an extralegal killing) is the deliberate killing of a person without the lawful authority granted by a judicial proceeding. It typically refers to government authorities, ...
of a suspected thief in the Ndosho neighborhood, where he was burned alive by a mob. The group justified the act by claiming a lack of detention facilities. On 23 November, M23 rebels retook Sake from the FARDC after an intense four-hour battle and reinforced their position in the town, as they reportedly moved toward Kirotshe to the south, Mushaki to the north-west, and Kingi to the north. Meanwhile, the FARDC reinforced their position in
Minova Minova is a town in the Kalehe Territory, South Kivu Province, DRC. It is an important business center for farm-fishery products. It is very close to Idjwi Island, Masisi Territory, Lake Kivu on its North Western shore, and is only 45 km from ...
, near the
South Kivu South Kivu (; ) is one of Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital city, capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is ...
provincial border, with more than 3500 soldiers. The UN has declared that it lost access to 30 of its 31 refugee camps in the area due to the M23 offensive. On 24 November in South Kivu, Colonel Albert Kahasha, who had surrendered and joined government troops along with other leaders of
Mai-Mai The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
militia groups Raïa Mutomboki and
Nyatura The Nyatura (Kinyarwanda for “those who hit hard”), also known as Mai-Mai Nyatura, and officially called the Collective of Movements for Change, are a group of Congolese Hutu militias that operate in the Kivu region of the Congo. History T ...
. On 13 November, he defected again from the FARDC. At a regional meeting in
Kampala Kampala (, ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Uganda. The city proper has a population of 1,875,834 (2024) and is divided into the five political divisions of Kampala Central Division, Kampala, Kawempe Division, Kawempe, Makindy ...
, leaders of the
Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes spanning the Canada–United States border. The five lakes are Lake Superior, Superior, Lake Michigan, Michigan, Lake Huron, H ...
area gave M23 a two-day ultimatum to leave Goma. A combined force which would include international troops, a FARDC
company A company, abbreviated as co., is a Legal personality, legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether Natural person, natural, Juridical person, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members ...
, and a M23 company would be posted near
Goma International Airport Goma International Airport ( French: ''Aéroport International de Goma''), colloquially known by its acronym AIG based on its French name, is the primary international airport serving Goma, the capital of North Kivu province in the Democratic R ...
and would take charge of security. During the nights of 24–25 November, M23 soldiers looted homes in the Keshero neighborhood, stealing money and material goods. When the ultimatum expired on 26 November, M23 still controlled the city. The FARDC, had previously withdrawn after raping almost 126 women, some of them less than 10 years old, according to the United Nations and looting the money and possessions of the local population, came from Minova in a counteroffensive launched against M23 positions in the
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
, North Kivu region on 27 November. M23 set up a road block on the road from Goma to Sake and reportedly extorted funds from drivers. That same day, M23 forces killed Uzaribara Baba Rehema, a father of six, and stole his vehicle. The same night, an assassination attempt was made on the Director General of the Higher Institute of Pedagogy, although he narrowly escaped. Between 20–27 November, M23 orchestrated the escape of approximately 1,500 prisoners from Goma's Munzenze central prison, including individuals serving life sentences. M23 also transported heavy weaponry and ammunition abandoned by FARDC to Rwanda via the Bunagana border. This included combat tanks and an estimated 1,000 tons of military equipment, reportedly moved under the observation of the MONUSCO. The office for Direction Générale des Impôts (DGI-Goma), the Goma Public Prosecutor's Office, and the Katindo camp hospital were stripped of movable assets, furniture, and equipment. Even museum artifacts from the governorate were looted. Vehicles and equipment from state agencies like the Office des Routes and the Office des Voiries et Drainage (OVD) were stolen and transported to Rwanda. The homes of provincial ministers, deputies, military officers, and other officials were ransacked, with valuable goods taken to Rwanda. Entire neighborhoods, including Himbi and Keshero, suffered similar fates, with civilians subjected to violence. Food stocks, vehicles, and donations from the European Union meant for the
Congolese National Police The Congolese National Police (, PNC) is the national police force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The national police consists of 110,000–150,000 officers and operates on the provincial level, answering to the Interior Ministry. It ha ...
were seized. Following a peace deal negotiated in Uganda, the M23 said it would withdraw from
Goma Goma is a city in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province; it is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with the Bukumu Chiefdo ...
by 1 December. On 30 November, M23 troops began to withdraw from Sake and Masisi. That same day, a contingent of 200 police officers arrived in Goma in anticipation of M23's withdrawal. However, M23 operatives allegedly maintained a presence in the city, disguised in civilian police uniforms. The occupation of Goma triggered a massive displacement crisis; by 30 November, over 130,000 people had fled their homes and sought refuge in camps surrounding the city. Notable concentrations of displaced persons included 61,200 in Mugunga 1, 31,170 at Lac Vert, and 30,000 in Mugunga III. Living conditions in these camps were dire, with most displaced persons deprived of adequate
humanitarian assistance Humanitarian assistance is aid and action designed to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity during and after man-made crises and disasters. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including providing food, water, shelter, ...
to meet their basic needs. The Mugunga 3 camp, located from Goma, was also looted by M23, with rebels stealing food, clothing, and personal items from vulnerable individuals. Adolescents were reportedly forced to carry stolen goods, and six cases of rape were documented during the assault on the camp. Despite the presence of MONUSCO peacekeepers, M23 operated with impunity, openly transporting looted goods to Rwanda. On 3 December 2012, FARDC and Congolese government officials re-enter Goma, two days after M23 left the city. On 24 February 2013, leaders of eleven African nations signed an agreement designed to bring peace to the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo, among them
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
and
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
. Both had been accused of aiding the M23 rebellion, a charge they denied. M23 was not represented either in the negotiations, or at the signing. On 18 March 2013, Bosco Ntaganda handed himself in to the U.S. embassy in
Kigali Kigali () is the Capital (political), capital and largest city of Rwanda. It is near the nation's geographic centre in a region of rolling hills, with a series of valleys and ridges joined by steep slopes. As a primate city, Kigali is a relativ ...
, Rwanda,BBC News – Bosco Ntaganda: Wanted Congolese in US mission in Rwanda
Bbc.co.uk (18 March 2013). Retrieved on 2013-09-04.
where he requested transfer to the
International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and International court, international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute ...
in
The Hague The Hague ( ) is the capital city of the South Holland province of the Netherlands. With a population of over half a million, it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Situated on the west coast facing the North Sea, The Hague is the c ...
, Netherlands. Though the reasons for his surrender are unknown it was speculated that he was either pressured to do so by Rwanda or feared infighting within the M23 movement and its military leader Sultani Makenga, which had recently forced Ntaganda's forces to flee the DRC into Rwanda. Though Rwanda was not a signatory to the
Rome Statute The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC). It was adopted at a diplomatic conference in Rome, Italy on 17 July 1998Michael P. Scharf (August 1998)''Results of the R ...
, the media speculated it would be forced to turn him over to the ICC. The U.S. also had listed him on its
Rewards for Justice Program Rewards for Justice Program (RFJ) is United States Department of State's national security interagency program that offers reward for information leading to the location or an arrest of leaders of terrorist groups, financiers of terrorism, inclu ...
. On 22 March, he was detained by the ICC and appeared for the first time in front of the ICC on 26 March, to which he denied charges of rape, murder, and other offenses.


Masisi Territory

The capture of
Masisi Territory Masisi Territory is a territory which is located within the North Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its political headquarters are located in the town of Masisi. Overview Masisi territory has an area of 4734 km. Masisi Terr ...
was a strategic component of the M23 rebellion subsequent to their high-profile conquest of Goma on 20 November 2012. Seeking to expand their control into Masisi Territory, the M23 relied on allied militias, including
Nyatura The Nyatura (Kinyarwanda for “those who hit hard”), also known as Mai-Mai Nyatura, and officially called the Collective of Movements for Change, are a group of Congolese Hutu militias that operate in the Kivu region of the Congo. History T ...
, Mai-Mai Cheka, and Raïa Mutomboki, to execute coordinated attacks and destabilize the region. Additionally, the M23 leveraged infiltrated elements of RDF within the FARDC to facilitate their operations. To consolidate their position, the M23 sought control of key settlements, including Mushaki, Karuba, Ngungu, Rubaya, Kibabi, Kingi, Bihambwe, Lushebere, and Katale. From 24–25 November 2012, the group mobilized youth to infiltrate
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
town, instigating unrest as a precursor to its capture. These efforts led to violent confrontations, resulting in five deaths, including a woman, and 13 injuries, among them a child. Victims were treated at the Hôpital Général de Référence de Masisi. Nyatura militias, predominantly composed of Hutu combatants, engaged in systematic violence, including looting, arson, and murder. They targeted villages primarily inhabited by the Hunde ethnic group. Villages burned by Nyatura included Rona (Biiri ''groupement''), Buoye, and Buloto (Bunyungu ''groupement''), as well as Bonde and Lushebere/Lwashi (Bapfuna ''groupement''). The Nyatura forces were commanded by Mr. Munyamariba, a former militia leader affiliated with
Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma The Congolese Rally for Democracy–Goma (, known as RCD-Goma) was a faction of the Congolese Rally for Democracy, a rebel movement based in Goma, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during the Second Congo War (1998–2003). After the war, som ...
(RCD-Goma) and CNDP. In parallel, the Mai-Mai Cheka militia launched assaults on Kalembe village within the Bashali-Mokoto ''groupement'' of
Bashali Chiefdom The Bashali Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bashali'') is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in the Masisi Territory of North Kivu, North Kivu Province in the eastern region of the ...
, aiming to secure the area for the M23. Similarly, Raïa Mutomboki, aligned with M23, perpetrated analogous acts of violence. These coordinated attacks instigated mass displacement, with residents fleeing into the bush. Panic spread to nearby towns, such as Kitshanga. Looting of goods and shops was rampant, and homes were set ablaze, including two houses within Masisi town itself.


End of the first rebellion

M23 split and factional clashes On 28 February 2013, the M23 movement underwent a major internal split into two factions, primarily due to mistrust and power struggles between leaders
Bosco Ntaganda Bosco Ntaganda (born 5 November 1973) is a Congolese former rebel leader and convicted war criminal. He was the former military chief of staff of the National Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), a rebel that group operated in the No ...
and Sultani Makenga. Following the split, Ntaganda and his loyal officers fortified their positions in Kibumba, approximately 27 kilometers north of
Goma Goma is a city in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province; it is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with the Bukumu Chiefdo ...
. In contrast, Makenga retained control over
Rumangabo Rumangabo is military base of the military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo located in Rutshuru Territory, north of Goma in Nord Kivu province, north of the headquarters of Virunga National Park. During Mobutu Sese Seko's presidency, the s ...
, located further north. Reports from former Ntaganda followers indicated that he had grown increasingly paranoid about potential arrest, prompting him to enhance his personal security detail. Despite this, Ntaganda maintained the loyalty of a majority of M23's military forces. Meanwhile, the M23's financial resources became a point of contention; it was reported by the UN Group of Experts that Jean-Marie Runiga, who was then the
Minister of Finance A ministry of finance is a ministry or other government agency in charge of government finance, fiscal policy, and financial regulation. It is headed by a finance minister, an executive or cabinet position . A ministry of finance's portfolio ...
for M23, took the bulk of the movement's financial assets with him when he aligned with Ntaganda in Kibumba. Conversely, Makenga held significant control over the movement's weapons and ammunition stockpile. In the wake of these developments, both factions publicly denied any collaboration with Ntaganda.
Bertrand Bisimwa Bertrand Bisimwa (born c. 1973 in Bukavu) is a Congolese rebel leader who is the president of the March 23 Movement, a rebel group based in eastern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). M-23 activities In the early part of 2013 ...
, president of Makenga's faction, informed the UN Group of Experts that M23 leaders had uncovered Ntaganda's presence within M23-controlled territory. This prompted Bisimwa to issue a
communiqué A press release (also known as a media release) is an official statement delivered to members of the news media for the purpose of providing new information, creating an official statement, or making an announcement directed for public releas ...
on 27 February 2013, accusing Runiga of granting Ntaganda "political leverage" over M23 and subsequently dismissing him from his presidential role. Runiga refuted these allegations in an interview, asserting that he had not seen Ntaganda since January 2012. As tensions escalated, Ntaganda reportedly sought to establish an escape route to
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
. Reports indicated that Ntaganda maintained contact with François Mudahunga, a former member of the
Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple The National Congress for the Defence of the People (, CNDP) was a Congolese Rwandan-backed paramilitary rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo during the Kivu conflict. Established on 26 July 2006 by Laurent Nkunda i ...
(CNDP) and commander in the Congolese army, in preparation for this potential flight. Together, they organized a contingent of approximately 50 people to assist with Ntaganda's escape and to retrieve ammunition from his caches in the Masisi region. Clashes between the two M23 factions erupted on 28 February. Observers, including former Rwandan army officers and political collaborators, noted that while some Rwandan military personnel had expressed support for Ntaganda, they were backing Makenga. Demobilized Rwandan soldiers were reported to have joined Makenga's forces, significantly bolstering his military capabilities. Makenga's faction possessed a tactical edge, commanding the majority of heavy weaponry looted in Goma, as well as arms captured during prior military engagements. The confrontation saw the employment of heavy ordnance, including
tanks A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engine; t ...
, multi-barrel rocket launchers, and
heavy machine guns A heavy machine gun (HMG) is significantly larger than light machine gun, light, medium machine gun, medium or general-purpose machine guns. HMGs are typically too heavy to be man-portable (carried by one person) and require weapon mount, mountin ...
, which facilitated Makenga's offensive against Ntaganda. Disinformation tactics employed by Rwandan officers further compromised Ntaganda's position, leading to his eventual defeat. Despite earlier assurances from some Rwandan officers, Ntaganda ultimately found himself without the promised military support. As supply lines faltered, Ntaganda's forces began to dwindle. By mid-March, as Ntaganda's situation became increasingly dire, he attempted to escape to Rwanda. However, during this same period, Rwandan troops apprehended several of his fleeing soldiers and returned them to Makenga's forces. Fearing for his life, Ntaganda sought refuge in Rwanda, crossing the border clandestinely on 15 March. Upon reaching
Kigali Kigali () is the Capital (political), capital and largest city of Rwanda. It is near the nation's geographic centre in a region of rolling hills, with a series of valleys and ridges joined by steep slopes. As a primate city, Kigali is a relativ ...
, he sought asylum at the
United States embassy The United States has the second largest number of active diplomatic posts of any country in the world after the People's Republic of China, including 272 bilateral posts (embassies and consulates) in 174 countries, as well as 11 permanent miss ...
, where he requested to be transferred to the
International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and International court, international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute ...
(ICC), independent of Rwandan government knowledge. As a consequence of these developments, the Rwandan authorities apprehended individuals suspected of assisting Ntaganda's escape and conducted interrogations of his family members. The Joint Verification Mechanism of the
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), French: ''Conférence Internationale sur la Région des Grands Lacs (CIRGL)'', is an intergovernmental organization of African countries in the African Great Lakes region. Membership Th ...
reported the crossing of approximately 788 people, comprising M23 combatants and political affiliates, into Rwanda beginning 15 March. In contrast, around 500 troops from Ntaganda's faction surrendered to Makenga within the DRC on 16 March, while Rwandan forces disarmed those who entered Rwanda, recovering a significant cache of weaponry. In light of escalating violence, the
United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...
authorized the deployment of an intervention brigade as part of the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the DRC (MONUSCO) to conduct targeted offensive operations, with or without the collaboration of the Congolese national army, against armed groups that posed threats to peace in eastern DRC. The brigade was stationed in North Kivu and comprised a total of 3,069 peacekeepers. Its mandate encompassed the neutralization of armed groups, the reduction of risks to state authority and civilian security, and the creation of a conducive environment for stabilization activities. Following Ntaganda's transfer to the ICC on 22 March, Rwandan authorities relocated Runiga, Col. Baudouin Ngaruye, Col. Innocent Zimurinda and Col. Eric Badege associated with him and his faction after the DRC issued arrest warrants. These individuals were accused of
war crimes A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hos ...
,
crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity are certain serious crimes committed as part of a large-scale attack against civilians. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during both peace and war and against a state's own nationals as well as ...
, and establishing an insurrectional movement. They were also listed by the UNSC Committee established under 2004 resolution 1533. Additional M23 members were suspected of human rights violations, with some potentially facing judicial action within the DRC. Following Ntaganda's defeat, Makenga was left in command of a diminished M23 force, consisting of approximately 1,500 soldiers dispersed over an area of 700 square kilometers. Between 20 March and 19 June 2013, a total of 246 M23 combatants surrendered to the UN peacekeeping mission's Disarmament, Demobilization, Repatriation, Reintegration, and Resettlement (DDRRR) Section. Many others either surrendered to the FARDC or fled. The withdrawal of support from key leaders and communities in Northern Rwanda, who had previously supported Ntaganda, resulted in a significant decline in the M23's recruitment and financial networks. Troop shortages compelled Makenga to abandon several positions held by M23. In a bid to bolster the movement's numbers, Makenga sought to recruit additional fighters from the DRC, Rwanda, and Uganda. Although he received some assistance from sympathetic Rwandan officials who facilitated recruitment in Rwanda, Ugandan authorities disrupted multiple M23 recruitment efforts on their territory. Recruitment from Rwanda saw a decline following the dismantling of Ntaganda's organizational network. Local leaders in northern Rwanda who had once supported Ntaganda ceased their cooperation with the M23. However, by the end of March 2013, the movement had acquired approximately 200 recruits, including some from refugee camps in Rwanda and others—such as children—from the
Rutshuru Rutshuru is a town located in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and is headquarters of an administrative district, the Rutshuru Territory. The town lies in the western branch of the Albertine Rift between L ...
and
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
territories. M23 also made efforts to recruit individuals from refugee camps in western Uganda. On 20 May, three days before a planned visit by the
UN Secretary-General The secretary-general of the United Nations (UNSG or UNSECGEN) is the chief administrative officer of the United Nations and head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the United Nations System#Six principal organs, six principal organs of ...
to Goma, M23 made an unsuccessful attempt to seize Mutaho Hill, a position held by the Congolese army which was defending Goma. In preparation for this action, M23 redeployed troops towards Goma and relocated heavy weaponry to the south. However, faced with resistance from FARDC, the rebels retreated to their initial positions. The M23 forces encountered shortages of ammunition, a lack of rockets and shells, and suffered significant casualties—40 dead and over 30 injured—culminating in a unilateral ceasefire after failing to receive promised military support from Rwanda. On 21–22 May, M23 launched five 122-mm artillery rounds into heavily populated areas of Goma, including the Mugunga camp for internally displaced persons. Reportedly, M23 commanders regularly met with Rwandan army officers during this period. From March to May 2013, the UN Group of Experts observed meetings between M23 colonels Kaina and Yusuf Mboneza and Rwandan military officials at the border near Kabuhanga. Former members of M23 indicated that some Rwandan army officers, or their representatives, also traveled to locations such as Chanzu or Rumangabo for discussions with Makenga. By early June 2013, M23 continued to maintain troops in advanced positions close to Goma, with Makenga indicating to his forces that operations against Goma would soon resume.


Diplomatic developments and end of the first rebellion

Negotiations between the Congolese government and Makenga's M23 recommenced in
Kampala Kampala (, ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Uganda. The city proper has a population of 1,875,834 (2024) and is divided into the five political divisions of Kampala Central Division, Kampala, Kawempe Division, Kawempe, Makindy ...
in June 2013. Although Makenga had assured his soldiers of their integration into the Congolese army in the event of a victory against Ntaganda, several former M23 soldiers reported to the UN Group of Experts that Makenga was planning a renewed offensive against Goma. From 1 January to 9 June 2013, 57 people who declared themselves as former M23 soldiers and Rwandan nationals were demobilized and repatriated by the MONUSCO's DDRRR Section. However, during an assessment in May 2013, a camp official indicated that no former M23 combatants had yet arrived at the designated demobilization camp in Rwanda. Furthermore, fourteen former M23 soldiers reported to the UN Group of Experts that Rwandan nationals who deserted from M23 and attempted to return directly to Rwanda were forcibly returned to M23 by Rwandan army personnel. On 12 July, Dr.
Crispus Kiyonga Crispus Walter Kiyonga (born 19 September 1952) is a Ugandan medical doctor, politician and career diplomat. He is the current Chancellor of the Makerere University, the largest public university of Uganda. He served as Uganda's Ambassador to C ...
, Uganda's Minister of Defence and facilitator of the negotiations, presented a revised draft agreement based on contributions from both parties. Although this draft indicated some advancement in the discussions, it required further negotiation and refinement, particularly regarding three contentious issues: integration, disarmament, and amnesty for M23 members. The United Nations opposed offering amnesty to individuals accused of serious international crimes, as outlined in the 2006 Guidelines for United Nations Representatives on Certain Aspects of Negotiations for Conflict Resolution. The Congolese government, in March 2013, echoed this stance, disapproving of amnesty provisions for serious crimes. On 19 July 2013, the Group of Experts assisting the UNSC Committee established under resolution 1533 submitted its interim report to the Committee, indicating that M23 continued to receive limited support from Rwanda. On 31 July, a summit of the
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), French: ''Conférence Internationale sur la Région des Grands Lacs (CIRGL)'', is an intergovernmental organization of African countries in the African Great Lakes region. Membership Th ...
(ICGLR) convened in
Nairobi Nairobi is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Kenya. The city lies in the south-central part of Kenya, at an elevation of . The name is derived from the Maasai language, Maasai phrase , which translates to 'place of cool waters', a ...
, reaffirming commitment to the Framework and the
Kampala Kampala (, ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Uganda. The city proper has a population of 1,875,834 (2024) and is divided into the five political divisions of Kampala Central Division, Kampala, Kawempe Division, Kawempe, Makindy ...
dialogue. The summit called on various envoys to assist in the process and acknowledged the Technical Support Committee's efforts in establishing benchmarks for implementing the peace, security, and cooperation framework. The summit urged increased collaboration between MONUSCO and regional security mechanisms, while also expressing interest from Kenya and
Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...
in joining the framework, with leaders requesting that the UN consider their applications. Following consultations with the
African Union The African Union (AU) is a continental union of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa. The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union. The b ...
and SADC, both nations were invited to participate in the Regional Oversight Mechanism meeting in New York on 23 September. The thirty-third SADC summit, held in
Lilongwe Lilongwe (, ,) is the capital and largest city of Malawi. It has a population of 989,318 as of the 2018 Census, up from a population of 674,448 in 2008. In 2020, that figure was 1,122,000. The city is located in the central region of Malawi, i ...
on 17-18 August, reiterated regional support for the Framework, commended UNSC resolution 2098, recognized the extended Kampala dialogue between the DRC and M23, and urged all Congolese stakeholders to engage in the upcoming national dialogue. Hostilities resumed from 22 to 29 August 2013, during which the M23 rebel group shelled residential areas in Goma and targeted MONUSCO positions in the Munigi Hills of the neighboring
Bukumu Chiefdom The Bukumu Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bukumu'') is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in the Nyiragongo Territory of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province in the eastern region o ...
. This outbreak of violence resulted in the deaths of eight civilians and injuries to at least 40 others, including a United Nations peacekeeper from
Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...
, who was killed, along with injuries sustained by 14 additional peacekeepers from
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
and Tanzania. As part of its mandate to protect civilians, the MONUSCO Force Intervention Brigade assisted the FARDC in dislodging M23 from its positions on the Munigi Hills. During this period of violence, artillery shells were also fired into Rwandan territory, leading to civilian casualties, including one death and serious injuries to a child. On 23 August,
Martin Kobler Martin Kobler (born 1953 in Stuttgart) is a German former career diplomat who served as German Ambassador to Egypt, Iraq and Pakistan. He served as Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General and Head of United Nations Suppo ...
, the Special Representative for the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Head of MONUSCO, together with Flavia Pansieri, the United Nations Deputy
High Commissioner for Human Rights The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat that works to promote and protect human rights that are guaranteed under international law and stipulated in the Univers ...
, publicly condemned the targeting of civilian areas at a joint press conference in Goma. On 24 August, demonstrations erupted in Goma, with civilians protesting against armed group attacks and calling for increased intervention and protection from MONUSCO. In response to the renewed fighting, President Museveni hosted the ICGLR's seventh summit in Kampala on 5-6 September, attended by Presidents
Joseph Kabila Joseph Kabila Kabange ( , ; born 4 June 1971) is a Congolese politician and former military officer who served as the fourth President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 2001 to 2019. He took office ten days after the assassination o ...
,
Paul Kagame Paul Kagame ( ; born 23 October 1957) is a Rwandan politician and former military officer who has been the President of Rwanda since 2000. He was previously a commander of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel armed force which invaded ...
,
Jakaya Kikwete Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete (born 7 October 1950) is a Tanzanian politician who was the List of Presidents of Tanzania, fourth president of Tanzania, in office from 2005 to 2015. Prior to his election as president, he was the Ministry of Foreign Aff ...
, and
Salva Kiir Salva Kiir Mayardit (born 13 September 1951), commonly known as Salva Kiir, is a South Sudanese politician who is the President of South Sudan since its independence on 9 July 2011. Prior to independence, he was the President of the Government ...
. During closed-door consultations, leaders addressed issues impeding the Kampala dialogue that had triggered the fighting, including cessation of hostilities, amnesty, integration, disarmament of M23, and the fate of its leadership. The UN Special Envoy participated in these discussions, advocating for a principled stance against amnesty and integration for those guilty of serious crimes. Additionally, Presidents Kagame and Kikwete held bilateral meetings to address rising tensions between their countries regarding the situation in eastern DRC. The summit denounced bombings in Goma and Rwanda, tasked the Expanded Joint Verification Mechanism with investigating the incidents, and directed the parties involved in the Kampala dialogue to recommence discussions within three days and conclude them within fourteen days. It urged M23 to cease military activities, decided to exert pressure on M23 and other negative forces in eastern DRC, accepted MONUSCO's request for permanent representation within the Mechanism, and solicited logistical support from MONUSCO. Furthermore, it called on the UN to find urgent solutions for former M23 combatants in Rwanda and accepted a joint SADC/ICGLR summit proposal. On 5 November, in Kampala, Uganda, M23 publicly renounced its rebel activities and urged combatants to prepare for the process of disarmament, demobilization, and social reintegration. The following day, the Congolese government acknowledged this renunciation and simultaneously launched military operations against M23 positions in eastern DRC. On 7 November, Makenga surrendered, along with approximately 1,500 fighters, at
Mgahinga Gorilla National Park Mgahinga Gorilla National Park is a national park in southwestern Uganda. It was created in 1991 and covers an area of . Geography Mgahinga Gorilla National Park is located in the Virunga Mountains and encompasses three inactive volcanoes, name ...
, after which they were relocated to refugee camps in Uganda. On 2 December, a summit between Kabila and Museveni resulted in a communiqué advocating for the resolution of the Kampala dialogue to facilitate the reintegration of M23 ex-combatants and to complete the demobilization process. By 12 December, the Congolese government and M23 formalized agreements reflecting the conclusions of the Kampala dialogue, addressing the cessation of armed activities and outlining conditions for long-term stability in eastern DRC. Eleven key components of these agreements included amnesty provisions granted to M23 members solely for actions conducted during warfare and insurgency, and the establishment of transitional security arrangements aimed at facilitating disarmament and demobilization. The signatories also agreed on the release of M23 members incarcerated by the Congolese government for acts of rebellion. Furthermore, M23 committed to ending its insurgency and transitioning into a recognized political party, alongside the demobilization of former combatants. The agreements encompassed measures for the return of refugees and IDPs to their homes, the formation of a commission to address issues related to confiscated, extorted, stolen, or destroyed properties, and initiatives directed toward national reconciliation and justice. Additional provisions included social, security, and economic reforms, as well as the implementation of findings from the review of the 23 March 2009 Agreement. Lastly, the parties established mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the agreed positions. Despite these advancements, issues surrounding legal accountability for the rebellion remained contentious due to international pressure.


Humanitarian crisis and refugee displacement (2012–2013)

The humanitarian situation remained dire due to ongoing clashes between FARDC and various armed groups. As of late August, tens of thousands were newly displaced, with North and South Kivu provinces accounting for approximately 65% of the 2.6 million
internally displaced persons An internally displaced person (IDP) is someone who is forced displacement, forced to leave their home but who remains within their country's borders. They are often referred to as refugees, although they do not fall within the Refugee#Definitions ...
(IDPs) in the DRC. By 25 August, over 1 million IDPs were reported in North Kivu, while South Kivu had an estimated 712,000 IDPs as of 31 July. The conflict also had profound regional implications, leading to significant refugee flows, with approximately 440,000 Congolese refugees residing in neighboring countries. In July 2013, Uganda experienced a notable influx of over 66,000 Congolese refugees, primarily due to intense clashes in
Beni Territory Beni Territory, also known as Oicha Territory, is a territory of North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It's administrative center is the town of Oicha. It has been the site of fighting during the Allied Democratic Forces insurgency be ...
. Uganda emerged as the largest host for Congolese refugees, accommodating around 150,000 individuals. Other neighboring nations, including
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
, Rwanda, Tanzania,
Republic of the Congo The Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo), is a country located on the western coast of Central ...
,
South Sudan South Sudan (), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya; and on the ...
,
Zambia Zambia, officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa. It is typically referred to being in South-Central Africa or Southern Africa. It is bor ...
,
Central African Republic The Central African Republic (CAR) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to Central African Republic–Chad border, the north, Sudan to Central African Republic–Sudan border, the northeast, South Sudan to Central ...
, and
Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-Central Africa, central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking world, Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country in both total area and List of c ...
, also received varying numbers of Congolese refugees.


Renewed conflict (2022–present)

In 2017, M23 commander Sultani Makenga and about 100 to 200 of his followers fled from Uganda to resume their insurgency, setting up camp at
Mount Mikeno Mount Mikeno is an extinct volcanic mountain located in the Democratic Republic of the Congo section of the Virunga Mountains along with Mount Nyiragongo, Mount Nyamuragira, Mount Karisimbi, Mount Bisoke and Mount Sabyinyo. At Mount Mikeno ...
in the border area between Rwanda, Uganda, and the DR Congo. However, this splinter group remained largely inactive and did not receive support from the broader M23. On 7 November 2021, M23 launched attacks on the FARDC in the villages of Ndiza, Cyanzu, and Runyoni, killing four people. These attacks were seen as a response to stalled negotiations with the Congolese government, which had failed to progress.


Offensive in Rutshuru and territorial gains

The conflict escalated in 2022 with a major battle in Bunagana, a strategic border town, on 28 March. M23 deployed approximately 400 fighters in the assault. The following day, a MONUSCO helicopter was downed over M23-controlled territory, leading to the deaths of eight peacekeepers. The rebels also disrupted Ugandan road construction efforts in the region, prompting the
Uganda People's Defence Force The Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF), previously known as the National Resistance Army, is the armed forces of Uganda. From 2007 to 2011, the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated the UPDF had a total strength of 40,000–4 ...
(UPDF) to intervene briefly to secure equipment and personnel. This offensive led the Congolese government to publicly accuse Rwanda of supporting M23 for the first time. Amid mounting tensions, regional heads of state, including Presidents
Félix Tshisekedi Félix Antoine Tshisekedi Tshilombo (; born 13 June 1963) is a Congolese politician who has served as the fifth president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, since 2019. He was the leader of the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Demo ...
,
Paul Kagame Paul Kagame ( ; born 23 October 1957) is a Rwandan politician and former military officer who has been the President of Rwanda since 2000. He was previously a commander of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel armed force which invaded ...
,
Yoweri Museveni Yoweri Kaguta Museveni Tibuhaburwa (born 15 September 1944) is a Ugandan politician and Officer (armed forces), military officer who is the ninth and current president of Uganda since 1986. As of 2025, he is the third-List of current state lead ...
, and
Uhuru Kenyatta Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta ( born 26 October 1961) is a Kenyan politician who served as the fourth president of Kenya from 2013 to 2022. The son of Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya's first president, he previously served as Prime Minister of Kenya, Deputy Pri ...
, met in
Nairobi Nairobi is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Kenya. The city lies in the south-central part of Kenya, at an elevation of . The name is derived from the Maasai language, Maasai phrase , which translates to 'place of cool waters', a ...
on 8 April 2022 to explore diplomatic solutions. An agreement was reached for a dual-track approach: peace talks with armed groups alongside military operations to force insurgents to demobilize. However, the Congolese government hesitated to negotiate directly with M23 and later rebranded the talks as "consultations", expanding participation to around 40 other armed groups. Fighting resumed on 23 April, and the Congolese delegation used the renewed hostilities as grounds to withdraw from discussions. Following this, President Tshisekedi reassigned the M23 negotiations from Claude Ibalanky, who had initiated dialogue, to Serge Tshibangu, a close advisor advocating for a more hardline stance. On 9 May, various armed factions—including the Alliance des Patriotes pour un Congo Libre et Souverain (APCLS), the Coalition des Mouvements pour le Changement/Forces de Défense du Peuple (CMC/FDP), the Nduma Défense du Congo-Rénové (NDC-R), and the Alliance Nationale des Congolais pour la Défense des Droits de l'Homme (ANCDH)—signed an agreement in Pinga,
Walikale Territory Walikale Territory is a territory situated in North Kivu Province, within the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo). Its administrative headquarters are located in the town of Walikale, which lies along Democrati ...
, pledging to halt hostilities among themselves and align with the Congolese army. The meeting was attended by FARDC Colonel Salomon Tokolonga and representatives of FDLR. Although President Tshisekedi condemned this strategy on 12 May, stating, "you can't put out a fire by throwing oil on it", no punitive actions were taken against those involved. Following the breakdown of peace talks, M23 intensified its military campaign under the leadership of
Bertrand Bisimwa Bertrand Bisimwa (born c. 1973 in Bukavu) is a Congolese rebel leader who is the president of the March 23 Movement, a rebel group based in eastern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). M-23 activities In the early part of 2013 ...
. On 26 May, the group overran a major FARDC base at
Rumangabo Rumangabo is military base of the military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo located in Rutshuru Territory, north of Goma in Nord Kivu province, north of the headquarters of Virunga National Park. During Mobutu Sese Seko's presidency, the s ...
, marking its most significant assault since resuming operations. By 13 June, M23 had captured Bunagana. Despite increased military efforts, the Congolese government remained committed to a diplomatic resolution. Discussions in Nairobi led to the establishment of the East African Community Regional Force (EACRF), marking the first military intervention by the
East African Community The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organisation in East Africa. The EAC's membership consists of eight states: Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Federal Republic of Somalia, the Republics of Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, S ...
(EAC), which had historically focused on economic integration. On 28 May, the Congolese government officially labeled M23 a "terrorist" organization, signaling its unwillingness to negotiate with the group. Meanwhile, faced with growing military pressure from M23 and the RDF, the FARDC sought alliances with local militias. On 19 June, the EAC chiefs of staff formulated an operational strategy, assigning military responsibilities to member states.
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
and
Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...
were designated to operate in South Kivu and
Maniema Maniema Province (''Jimbo la Maniema'', in Swahili) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Kindu. The 2020 population was estimated to be 2,856,300. Toponymy Henry Morton Stanley explored the area ...
(though Tanzania did not confirm participation), Kenya was tasked with securing the southern part of North Kivu, Uganda was assigned the northern part of North Kivu and
Ituri Ituri Province ( in Swahili language, Swahili) is one of the 21 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo created in the Subdivisions of the DR Congo#New provinces, 2015 repartitioning. Ituri, Bas-Uele, Haut-Uele, and Tshopo provinces ...
, and
South Sudan South Sudan (), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya; and on the ...
was given responsibility for the
Uélé Province Uélé Province is a former province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was formed in 1963 from part of Orientale Province Orientale Province () is one of the former provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and its predecesso ...
. Rwanda was initially expected to deploy troops in North and South Kivu, but the DRC rejected its participation. Regional stakeholders advocated for renewed diplomatic engagement, contending that the prevailing military stalemate necessitated a political resolution. The Congolese government, however, viewed the situation as the result of Rwandan aggression and maintained that there would be "no negotiation with M23" unless the group withdrew to its initial positions on the slopes of
Mount Sabyinyo Mount Sabyinyo ("Sabyinyo" is derived from the Kinyarwanda word "Iryinyo", meaning "tooth"; also "Sabyinyo, Sabyinio") is an extinct volcano in eastern Africa in the Virunga Mountains. Mount Sabyinyo is the oldest volcano of the range. It is nort ...
. On 20 October, M23 launched a renewed offensive in
Rutshuru Territory Rutshuru Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), with headquarters is the town of Rutshuru. The territory is mountainous, inclu ...
. The FARDC's counteroffensive quickly faltered, allowing M23 to expand its territorial control significantly. By 29 October, the rebels had captured the towns of
Rutshuru Rutshuru is a town located in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and is headquarters of an administrative district, the Rutshuru Territory. The town lies in the western branch of the Albertine Rift between L ...
and Kiwanja, securing a section of
Route Nationale 2 The Route nationale 2 (N 2) is a route nationale in northern France. Route Paris-Soissons-Laon- La Capelle-''Belgium (N 6)'' History The N 2 was initially defined in 1811 as ''route impériale'' 2, running from Paris all the way to Amsterdam v ...
and cutting off the primary supply route between Goma and the northern cities of Beni and
Butembo Butembo is a city in North Kivu, in the north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, on the Rwenzori graben and west of Virunga National Park. The city is an important commercial centre with large markets, a cathedral, multiple large hospitals, a ...
. This development increased Goma's reliance on trade with Rwanda. M23 forces then advanced along three fronts: southward toward Goma, halting approximately 20 kilometers from the city; northward toward the Ishasha border post; and westward through
Virunga National Park Virunga National Park is a national park in the Albertine Rift Valley in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was created in 1925. In elevation, it ranges from in the Semliki River valley to in the Rwenzori Mountains. ...
, toward Tongo ''groupement'' of Bwito Chiefdom. According to an investigative report by the Congo Research Group (CRG), M23's territorial expansion was bolstered by external support. Ugandan authorities reportedly allowed M23 to use their territory for recruitment and medical treatment of wounded fighters. Drone surveillance from the battle in Rugari on 30 October revealed the presence of soldiers equipped with gear resembling that of RDF. On 24 October, an RDF soldier defected to the MONUSCO base in Kiwanja. On 29 October, the Congolese government expelled Rwanda's ambassador to Kinshasa, citing Rwanda's alleged complicity in supporting M23. In retaliation, President Félix Tshisekedi exhorted Congolese youth to enlist in the FARDC. On 7 November, the FARDC, in collaboration with the private military enterprise Agemira, mobilized two
Su-25 The Sukhoi Su-25 ''Grach'' ( ('' rook''); NATO reporting name: Frogfoot) is a subsonic, single-seat, twin-engine jet aircraft developed in the Soviet Union by Sukhoi. It was designed to provide close air support for Soviet Ground Forces. The ...
fighter jets to execute aerial bombardments on M23 strongholds. This escalation heightened tensions with Rwanda, which accused the DRC of violating its airspace. On the ensuing day, the Congolese National Assembly ratified a resolution proscribing any negotiations that would facilitate the reintegration of armed factions into the national security apparatus. Kenyan contingent of the EACRF commenced troop deployments in Goma on 12 November to curb M23's territorial incursions. However, with a limited force size—reportedly capped at 900 soldiers—its deterrence capabilities were perceived as insufficient. Meanwhile, local militia groups launched counter-attacks against M23 in Rushovu on 14 November and in Kanaba on 17 November, resulting in significant insurgent casualties. In retaliation, M23 carried out the Kishishe massacre between 21–30 November, killing over 300 civilians across the Bwito Chiefdom, encompassing the villages of Kishishe, Bambu, and adjacent localities. This atrocity provoked an intensified wave of international censure and galvanized renewed diplomatic and military initiatives from Kinshasa.


Continued clashes

A regional summit held in
Luanda Luanda ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Angola, largest city of Angola. It is Angola's primary port, and its major industrial, cultural and urban centre. Located on Angola's northern Atlantic coast, Luanda is Ang ...
,
Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-Central Africa, central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking world, Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country in both total area and List of c ...
on 23 November yielded a more resolute posture than preceding diplomatic overtures. The summit mandated M23's immediate withdrawal to its initial positions, ostensibly on Mount Sabyinyo, and forewarned that the East African heads of state would sanction military intervention should the group fail to acquiesce. However, Kenya, whose military would likely lead any offensive, was absent from the meeting. On 25 November, M23 acquiesced to a ceasefire. On 23 December, M23 announced the partial handover of its positions in Kibumba to the Kenyan contingent of EACRF. However, subsequent reports from the Expanded Joint Verification Mechanism (MCVE) and EACRF revealed that the group retained a presence in the area. On 24 January 2023, a Congolese
fighter jet Fighter aircraft (early on also ''pursuit aircraft'') are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace. Domination of the a ...
was hit by Rwandan
artillery fire Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, ...
. Meanwhile, M23 continued its territorial expansion, capturing the strategically significant town of
Kitchanga Kitchanga, also known as Kitshanga, is a town and a camp for Congolese Internally Displaced People (IDPs) strategically positioned between Masisi and Rutshuru territories of the North Kivu Province, with a vantage point overlooking Lake Kivu in ...
on 26 January 2023. Days later, on 30 January, the Congolese army expelled Rwandan officers from EACRF, a move that drew criticism from the EAC secretary general for allegedly violating the Status of Forces Agreement. The Nairobi-led peace process weakened, prompting an EAC summit in
Bujumbura Bujumbura (; ), formerly Usumbura, is the economic capital, largest city and main port of Burundi. It ships most of the country's chief export, coffee, as well as cotton and tin ore. Bujumbura was formerly the country's political capital. In la ...
on 4 February. While the summit declaration emphasized a regional approach and the need for political dialogue, the Congolese government rejected this stance, arguing that the EACRF should adopt an offensive mandate. On 9 February, the EAC Chiefs of Staff convened in Nairobi and recommended restructuring the EACRF to include contingents from all participating nations. The first Burundian troops arrived on 4 March, deploying along the western flank of M23-controlled areas, followed by Ugandan troops entering through the Bunagana border on 31 March, and South Sudanese forces arriving in Rumangabo on 8 April. The EACRF's deployment temporarily stabilized front lines, with minimal territorial shifts between April and October 2023. On 13 March, M23 withdrew from select positions, such as those in Mweso, but failed to return to its original stronghold at Mount Sabyinyo. In various deployment zones, M23 maintained control and administrative functions despite the presence of regional forces. Exasperated by the perceived inaction of the EACRF, the Congolese government sought assistance from the
Southern African Development Community The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is an inter-governmental organization headquartered in Gaborone, Botswana. Goals The SADC's goal is to further regional socio-economic cooperation and integration as well as political and se ...
(SADC). On 8 May, SADC approved the deployment of a military force to support the DRC's efforts to restore stability in eastern Congo. Meanwhile, the Congolese government intensified its collaboration with local militias. On 6 March, Minister of Higher Education Butondo Muhindo Nzangi announced that local armed groups would be incorporated as reservists within the FARDC. On 4 May, the Congolese parliament passed a law formally establishing a reserve corps, fostering the creation of numerous militias under the banner of ''
wazalendo The Wazalendo ( Swahili; or 'nationalists') is a Congolese rebel coalition and irregular force based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is made up of rebel groups allied with the official Congolese military (FARDC) and opposed ...
'' ("patriots" in
Swahili Swahili may refer to: * Swahili language, a Bantu language officially used in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda and widely spoken in the African Great Lakes. * Swahili people, an ethnic group in East Africa. * Swahili culture, the culture of the Swahili p ...
). These militias were concentrated near M23-controlled areas, though some emerged in other conflict zones such as
Beni Territory Beni Territory, also known as Oicha Territory, is a territory of North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It's administrative center is the town of Oicha. It has been the site of fighting during the Allied Democratic Forces insurgency be ...
and
Lubero Territory Lubero Territory is a territory in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Internally displaced persons On 10 June, 2014, the administrator of Lubero Territory, Joy Bokele, requested assistance for six hundred displaced households who sou ...
. Simultaneously, private military companies increased their presence, with approximately 900 personnel operating in North Kivu by late May 2023. These forces also engaged in training Congolese soldiers at the Mubambiro military base near Goma. The
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
condemned the presence of RDF troops in the DRC and, in August 2023, imposed sanctions on Rwandan General Andrew Nyamvumba for his alleged role in supporting M23. In early 2024, diplomatic efforts led by Angola sought to revive peace talks between the DRC and Rwanda. After the two presidents failed to meet in
Addis Ababa Addis Ababa (; ,) is the capital city of Ethiopia, as well as the regional state of Oromia. With an estimated population of 2,739,551 inhabitants as of the 2007 census, it is the largest city in the country and the List of cities in Africa b ...
during an
African Union The African Union (AU) is a continental union of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa. The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union. The b ...
summit in February, Angola facilitated separate meetings with each leader. A ministerial meeting was subsequently held in Luanda in March to lay the groundwork for a summit. Under pressure from international donors, particularly the United States, the DRC committed to developing a plan to neutralize FDLR. Rwanda, in turn, indicated that it would reassess its defensive measures upon the plan's implementation. As part of broader diplomatic efforts, discussions between the Congolese and Rwandan governments took place in
Geneva Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...
on 15 May under the auspices of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is a United Nations agency mandated to aid and protect refugees, forcibly displaced communities, and stateless people, and to assist in their voluntary repatriation, l ...
(UNHCR). Both parties agreed to pursue constructive dialogue to facilitate the return of refugees residing in Rwanda and Uganda, addressing one of M23's longstanding demands. However, progress on this front has since stagnated. Despite regional mediation efforts and the involvement of multiple international actors, the conflict remains unresolved. M23 continues to exert significant influence in eastern DRC, while tensions between Kinshasa and Kigali persist. The SADC deployed the SAMIDRC, made up of
Tanzanian Demographic features of the population of Tanzania include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. The population distribution in Tan ...
,
Malawian Demographic features of the population of Malawi include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Region distribution Northern regio ...
, and South African contingents. Although the FARDC and allied forces managed to retain control of
Sake Sake, , or saki, also referred to as Japanese rice wine, is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asi ...
, the M23-RDF coalition occupied key positions on the surrounding hills and the town of Sasha, thereby controlling crucial supply routes linking Sake and Goma to the rest of the DRC. In March 2024, M23 launched a northern push into
Rutshuru Territory Rutshuru Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), with headquarters is the town of Rutshuru. The territory is mountainous, inclu ...
, capturing Rwindi and the Vitshumbi fishery along
Lake Edward Lake Edward (locally Rwitanzigye or Rweru) is one of the smaller African Great Lakes. It is located in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift, on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Uganda, ...
with little resistance. The FARDC withdrew to Kanyabayonga before the rebels' arrival. Following these setbacks, General Chico Tshitambwe, commander of the northern front, was recalled to
Kinshasa Kinshasa (; ; ), formerly named Léopoldville from 1881–1966 (), is the Capital city, capital and Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kinshasa is one of the world's fastest-grow ...
along with other officers accused of abandoning their posts. In response to perceived acts of treason on the battlefield, the Congolese
Minister of Justice A justice ministry, ministry of justice, or department of justice, is a ministry or other government agency in charge of the administration of justice. The ministry or department is often headed by a minister of justice (minister for justice in a ...
announced the suspension of the moratorium on the death penalty. According to an April 2024 report by the United Nations Group of Experts on the DRC, between 3,000 and 4,000 RDF soldiers were present on Congolese territory, possibly outnumbering the estimated 3,000 M23 combatants. Strategic advances and mineral exploitation in Rubaya M23 and RDF forces continued their advance on the southern front in Petit Nord, capturing mining sites in southern Masisi Territory, including Rubaya—one of the largest sources of
coltan Coltan (short for columbite–tantalites and known industrially as tantalite) is a dull black metallic ore from which the elements niobium and tantalum are extracted. The niobium-dominant mineral in coltan is columbite (after niobium's original A ...
globally—on 30 April. The alliance, referred to as AFC-M23, established control over trading centers in Rubaya and Mushaki, as well as critical mineral transport routes to Rwanda. This arrangement led to one of the most significant contaminations of
supply chains A supply chain is a complex logistics system that consists of facilities that convert raw materials into finished products and distribute them to end consumers or end customers, while supply chain management deals with the flow of goods in distr ...
with ineligible 3T minerals
tin Tin is a chemical element; it has symbol Sn () and atomic number 50. A silvery-colored metal, tin is soft enough to be cut with little force, and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, a bar of tin makes a sound, the ...
,
tantalum Tantalum is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ta and atomic number 73. It is named after Tantalus, a figure in Greek mythology. Tantalum is a very hard, ductility, ductile, lustre (mineralogy), lustrous, blue-gray transition ...
, and
tungsten Tungsten (also called wolfram) is a chemical element; it has symbol W and atomic number 74. It is a metal found naturally on Earth almost exclusively in compounds with other elements. It was identified as a distinct element in 1781 and first ...
—recorded in the
African Great Lakes The African Great Lakes (; ) are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. The series includes Lake Victoria, the second-largest freshwater lake in the world by area; Lake Tangan ...
region in the past decade. AFC-M23 monopolized the export of coltan from Rubaya to Rwanda, emphasizing high-volume trade and instituting considerable taxation policies. The group organized all logistical aspects of mineral production, trade, and transport, effectively establishing a quasi-governmental administration. This included the establishment of a ministry for mineral exploitation in Rubaya's trading area, which issued permits for miners and traders, disguised with the markings of the "République Démocratique du Congo – Province du Nord Kivu". Miners and traders were mandated to pay annual fees, and AFC-M23 doubled the wages of miners to incentivize their continued labor. The armed group enforced transaction regulations, threatening punitive actions for any violations. Minerals extracted from Rubaya were transported through various routes within the DRC, notably via Bihambwe, Mushaki, Kirolirwe, Kitshanga, Kizimba, Bishusha, Mulimbi, Tongo, Kalengera, and Kibumba. Cargo offloaded at the Kibumba market was often transported in heavy-duty trucks entering the DRC from Rwanda. Satellite imagery confirmed these movements. Furthermore, AFC-M23 enforced
forced labor Forced labour, or unfree labour, is any work relation, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will with the threat of destitution, detention, or violence, including death or other forms of ...
(''salongo'') among locals to construct and widen roads necessary for the transportation of minerals. Reports indicated that mineral convoys operated regularly, with several tons of coltan shipped each week, totaling an estimated 120 tons per month. AFC-M23 levied taxes and in-kind payments on mineral sales and transportation, generating approximately $800,000 monthly from the taxation of coltan production and trade in Rubaya.


Territorial expansion and advanced military equipment

On 3 May 2024, 122 mm rockets—considered unguided area weapons and indiscriminate when deployed in populated locales—were launched from military positions occupied by RDF units near Karuba in Masisi Territory. These munitions targeted military positions situated along the densely populated Sake-Goma corridor, resulting in civilian casualties in
Internally Displaced Persons An internally displaced person (IDP) is someone who is forced displacement, forced to leave their home but who remains within their country's borders. They are often referred to as refugees, although they do not fall within the Refugee#Definitions ...
(IDP) settlements in the area. The humanitarian situation further deteriorated in June 2024, as M23 and RDF forces progressed northward, seizing Kanyabayonga and Kirumba and historically entering Lubero Territory for the first time. On 10 and 15 June 2024, M23 and RDF employed extended-range guided missiles to strike the SADC Mission in Mubambiro and a FARDC position in Kanyamahoro, respectively. This type of missile, characterized by dual guidance systems (laser and wire-guided), had not previously been documented within the DRC and is not part of the FARDC's arsenal. A two-week humanitarian truce was agreed upon by the DRC and Rwanda on 4 July 2024, mediated by the United States. This agreement called for a cessation of hostilities, the voluntary return of displaced populations, and unrestricted access for humanitarian aid. In contrast to previous ceasefires in November and December 2023, this truce did not require RDF withdrawal. The truce was subsequently extended by a ceasefire agreement beginning on 4 August 2024, facilitated by Angola and the
African Union The African Union (AU) is a continental union of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa. The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union. The b ...
. Although initially honored by both RDF and FARDC, the ceasefire soon saw a resumption of conflict involving proxy forces such as M23 and Wazalendo alongside the FDLR. During a period of relative calm, these factions reportedly used the opportunity to reinforce their ranks and replenish arms supplies. By early August, both M23 and RDF made substantial territorial gains in northeastern Rutshuru Territory, capturing several key localities along the Kiwanja- Ishasha route, including the Ishasha border post with Uganda. From late May to early August 2024, electronic warfare tactics, including spoofing and jamming, disrupted
Global Positioning System The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based hyperbolic navigation system owned by the United States Space Force and operated by Mission Delta 31. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide ge ...
(GPS) capabilities affecting various aircraft, including U.N., humanitarian, and commercial flights. Jamming systems were identified in areas under the control of M23 and RDF, significantly impacting aerial operations. Despite the ceasefire, hostilities resumed on 20 October 2024 when M23 briefly occupied Kalembe in
Walikale Territory Walikale Territory is a territory situated in North Kivu Province, within the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo). Its administrative headquarters are located in the town of Walikale, which lies along Democrati ...
before being repelled by Wazalendo and the
Nduma Defense of Congo-Renovated Nduma Defense of Congo—Renovated () is a Congolese rebel group operating in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is a splinter faction of the Nduma Defense of Congo (NDC) and controls large parts of the North Kivu province, and has ...
. On 25 October, a short-range air defense system operated by RDF was reported in Karuba, Masisi Territory, enhancing the tactical capabilities of M23 and RDF. Following a MONUSCO drone incident, which crashed due to GPS jamming in an active combat zone, the environment remained fraught with tension and sporadic conflict.


Influence in Ituri and gold mining

In the
Ituri Province Ituri Province ( in Swahili) is one of the 21 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo created in the 2015 repartitioning. Ituri, Bas-Uele, Haut-Uele, and Tshopo provinces are the result of the subdividing of the former Orientale ...
, a local faction previously known as Zaïre rebranded itself as the Auto-Défense des Communautés Victimes de l'Ituri (ADCVI). During May and June 2024, ADCVI increased its recruitment efforts, successfully training thousands of new combatants. This group acquired military hardware, including armed pick-up trucks and boats, which enhanced its operational capacities on Lake Albert. Additionally, ADCVI developed capabilities for
aerial surveillance Surveillance aircraft are aircraft used for surveillance. They are primarily operated by military forces and government agencies in roles including intelligence gathering, maritime patrol, battlefield and airspace surveillance, observation (e.g ...
through the deployment of small commercial drones. Although ADCVI continued to present itself as a self-defense organization, it engaged in provocative actions against rival groups, such as the Coopérative pour le Développement du Congo/Union des Révolutionnaires pour la Défense du Peuple Congolais (CODECO/URDPC), while also increasingly targeting FARDC and the
Congolese National Police The Congolese National Police (, PNC) is the national police force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The national police consists of 110,000–150,000 officers and operates on the provincial level, answering to the Interior Ministry. It ha ...
. ADCVI launched extensive recruitment drives across various "G5" communities in the
Djugu Djugu is a town in the Ituri Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbourin ...
, Mahagi, and Aru territories, utilizing experienced former leaders and combatants from the Union des Patriotes Congolais (UPC). Recruitment also occurred in internally displaced persons camps throughout Ituri. Thousands of combatants received military training at facilities in Ituri, including AFC-M23 training centers located in Tchanzu, as well as in Uganda. ADCVI reinforced its alliance with the AFC-M23 in preparation for planned offensive operations against FARDC in Ituri. This coalition aimed to establish a comprehensive strategy to coordinate troop movements, logistical support routes for weaponry, and operational bases to facilitate a large-scale assault. AFC-M23 expressed its intention to unite all armed groups in Ituri under its leadership. Notably, negotiations were reported in December 2024, indicating interest from the Force de Résistance Patriotique de l'Ituri (FRPI) and CODECO-URDPC in aligning with AFC-M23, a potentially transformative development for the region. Key figures in these dynamics included individuals such as
Thomas Lubanga Dyilo Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (born 29 December 1960) is a convicted war criminal from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the first person convicted by the International Criminal Court (ICC). He founded and led the Union of Congolese Patri ...
and Yves Khawa Panga Mandro, both sanctioned for their involvement in violent activities. They played pivotal roles in enhancing collaboration between AFC-M23 and ADCVI, facilitating recruitment and training efforts, and organizing travel logistics for combatants. Notably, Innocent Kaina, alias India Queen, a prominent M23 commander, coordinated closely with Lubanga in Kampala to support these initiatives. In late July 2024, strategies were formalized to reconcile and unify various factions, including an attempt to merge MAPI and Zaïre-ADCVI under the AFC-M23 umbrella. Though MAPI leaders opted for independence, they agreed to cooperate with ADCVI and AFC-M23. This broad mobilization effort and collaboration have intensified significantly since August 2024, with frequent meetings taking place in various locations within Uganda, reflecting a strategic consolidation of power among these groups in Ituri. Ituri remains a significant site for artisanal gold mining, predominantly operating outside of state control, generating an estimated $140 million annually for armed groups and criminal networks. There exists a stark disparity between the estimated production of artisanal and small-scale gold and the recorded statistics. An official report estimated that artisanal and small-scale gold production in Ituri reached approximately 1,800 kilograms per year. However, between January and June 2024, the ''Service d'assistance et d'encadrement minière artisanale et à petite échelle'' (SAEMAPE) and the ''Coopérative des négociants d'or de l'Ituri'' (COONORI) reported a mere 17 kilograms of gold produced and 24 kilograms purchased, respectively. Mining authorities attributed this discrepancy largely to limited access to sites under the control of armed factions. Despite mining cooperatives engaging in protective arrangements with the Congolese National Police and FARDC, vast majority of mining locations continued to be dominated by armed groups such as CODECO/URDPC and ADCVI in Djugu Territory, as well as the FRPI and MAPI in Irumu Territory, with CODECO/URDPC also active in Mahagi Territory. Consequently, proprietors of the principal mining cooperatives in Ituri, all shareholders of COONORI, resorted to paying fees to the leaders of the armed factions controlling the mining areas. These leaders include Baraka from ADCVI and an armed figure known as "50 cent" from CODECO, payments viewed as maintaining the viability of their assets and operations. It is important to note that such payments to armed groups are considered sanctionable acts under international regulations. One prominent figure within the ADCVI is Baraka, a commander based in the town of Mabanga in Djugu Territory. Baraka has established exclusive control over economic activities within the Mambisa Chiefdom. His operations, including illicit gold mining and the imposition of taxes alongside checkpoint fees, reportedly generated approximately $1.6 million per month solely from gold production. In addition, income accrued from illegal taxes on local commerce and checkpoint fees added an estimated $70,000 to his monthly profits. These funds were often laundered through investments in real estate and commercial enterprises located in Mabanga, Iga-Barrière, and
Bunia Bunia is the capital Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, city of Ituri Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It was part of the Orientale Province until that province's dissolution. It lies at an elevation of on a ...
, thereby enabling Baraka to fortify his status as both an economic and military leader in the region. His activities are consistent with violations of international laws regarding the unlawful exploitation of natural resources, specifically as outlined in United Nations Security Council Resolution 2293.


Intensified hostilities (January 2025)

On 21 January 2025, it was reported that M23 forces have taken
Masisi Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi (; born 21 July 1961) is a Motswana politician who served as the fifth president of Botswana from 2018 to 2024. He served as the eighth vice president of Botswana from 12 November 2014 to 1 April 2018. He was a ...
, the key eastern trading town of
Minova Minova is a town in the Kalehe Territory, South Kivu Province, DRC. It is an important business center for farm-fishery products. It is very close to Idjwi Island, Masisi Territory, Lake Kivu on its North Western shore, and is only 45 km from ...
, that puts them within from Goma. Early on 27 January, M23 announced on X that they had captured Goma, although there were still reports of fighting throughout the city. Civilians shared videos showing M23 rebels patrolling Goma's major streets. The rebels issued an ultimatum, demanding the surrender of FARDC forces and imposing a 48-hour deadline, which culminated earlier that day. Some Congolese soldiers conceded, relinquishing their arms before the deadline expired. Key access routes surrounding Goma were barricaded, rendering
Goma International Airport Goma International Airport ( French: ''Aéroport International de Goma''), colloquially known by its acronym AIG based on its French name, is the primary international airport serving Goma, the capital of North Kivu province in the Democratic R ...
inoperable for evacuation and humanitarian relief efforts. Despite the partial presence of Congolese military personnel within the city, a significant portion of Goma fell under M23's dominion. Reports emerged of heavy artillery shelling within the city center and a mass jailbreak, with unverified footage circulating online showing detainees escaping. The prison, which housed 3,000 inmates, was reportedly completely torched, with fatalities resulting from the incident. It was reported that hundreds of female inmates were raped and burned alive during the mass jailbreak from Goma's prison. The group took control of
Bukavu Bukavu is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu P ...
, the capital of
South Kivu South Kivu (; ) is one of Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital city, capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is ...
, on 16 February 2025.https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c0rqr8q5v52o


See also

*
Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations Modern relations between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda have origins that date back to the European colonial era. Sharing a border that is in length, the two countries were both colonial possessions of Belgium between 1919 an ...


References


Works cited

*


Further reading

* * *


External links


UN Group of Experts final report 2012

Full text of the Agenda for the Dialogue between the Government of the DRC and the M23 on the situation in Eastern Congo, 16 January 2013
UN Peacemaker {{Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations 2012 establishments in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Military coups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Military units and formations established in 2012 North Kivu Rebel groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo