Mesopotamian god
Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively Anthropomorphism, anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. The deities typically wore ''melam'', a ...
who could be portrayed as a warrior or as a farmer. It has been proposed that he was originally understood as the deified form of historical king
Eannatum
Eannatum ( ; ) was a Sumerian ''Ensi (Sumerian), Ensi'' (ruler or king) of Lagash. He established one of the first verifiable empires in history, subduing Elam and destroying the city of Susa, and extending his domain over the rest of Sumer and Akk ...
of
Lagash
Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...
, but this theory remains a matter of dispute among researchers. He could be paired with Ḫadaniš, and together they belonged to the group of deities associated with
Enlil
Enlil, later known as Elil and Ellil, is an List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by t ...
and the temple
Ekur
Ekur ( ), also known as Duranki, is a Sumerian term meaning "mountain house". It is the assembly of the gods in the Garden of the gods, parallel in Greek mythology to Mount Olympus and was the most revered and sacred building of ancient Sumer ...
. The goddess
Ninmug
Ninmug or Ninmuga was a Mesopotamian goddess. She was associated with artisanship, especially with metalworking, as evidenced by her epithet ''tibira kalamma'', "metalworker of the land." She could also be regarded as a goddess of birth and assist ...
could be described as his mother. The worship of Lumma is best documented in
Umma
Umma () in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been sugges ...
and
Nippur
Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory'': Vol. 1, Part 1, Ca ...
. One of the kings of the former of these two cities bore the theophoric name
Ur-Lumma
''Ur-Lumma'' (, ; ) was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Umma. His father was King Enakalle, who had been vanquished by Eannatum of Lagash. Ur-Lumma claimed the title of "King" ('' Lugal''). His reign lasted at least 12 years.
Ur-Lumma ag ...
.
Name
The reading of the name dLUM-ma is not entirely certain, though Lumma (''dLum-ma'') is commonly used in modern
Assyriological
Assyriology (from Greek , ''Assyriā''; and , ''-logia''), also known as Cuneiform studies or Ancient Near East studies, is the archaeological, anthropological, historical, and linguistic study of the cultures that used cuneiform writing. The fie ...
literature. In the past Ḫumma was believed to be a plausible reading. The uncertainty extends to
theophoric name
A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or a god's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that d ...
s with the element dLUM-''ma'', resulting in spellings such as Ur-LUM-ma.
Origins in Sumerian, in a
Semitic language
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They include Arabic,
Amharic, Tigrinya, Aramaic, Hebrew, Maltese, Modern South Arabian languages and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by mo ...
or in a
substrate
Substrate may refer to:
Physical layers
*Substrate (biology), the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows or is attached
** Substrate (aquatic environment), the earthy material that exi ...
have all been proposed for Lumma. Possible translations presuming the first of these options is correct include "magnificent", "lush" or "tall". While attempts have also been made to explain it as "cloud", Lumma shows no affinity with weather deities in any sources. Proponents of the second theory interpret his name as an imperative derived from the
root
In vascular plants, the roots are the plant organ, organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often bel ...
*''lmm'', "to gather", or less plausibly as *''lūn-ma'', "he has come".
In names in which the element ''lumma'' appears to fulfill a theophoric function, but is not accompanied by the
dingir
''Dingir'' ⟨⟩, usually transliterated DIĜIR, () is a Sumerian word for 'god' or 'goddess'. Its cuneiform sign is most commonly employed as the determinative for religious names and related concepts, in which case it is not pronounced and ...
sign, it might be understood as an
epithet
An epithet (, ), also a byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as in Alfred the Great, Suleima ...
of another deity. In this case, it can be translated as "the lusty one", in a sense highlighting the strength of its bearer. According to the deity meant might be Dumuzi. However, his interpretation has been challenged by Gianni Marchesi, who argues most of his examples are misreadings. He instead suggests
Ningirsu
Ninĝirsu was a Mesopotamia, Mesopotamian god regarded as the tutelary deity of the city of Girsu, Ĝirsu, and as the chief god of the local pantheon of the state of Lagash. He shares many aspects with the god Ninurta. Ninĝirsu was identified as ...
is a plausible interpretation.
Character
Lumma was regarded as a warrior deity, and his attribute was a mace. He could also be described as a farmer. Gianni Marchesi notes that the combination of these two roles might suggest he was a deity similar to
Ninurta
Ninurta (: , possible meaning "Lord fBarley"), also known as Ninĝirsu (: , meaning "Lord fGirsu"), is an List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian god associated with farming, healing, hunting, law, scribes, and war who was f ...
or
Ningirsu
Ninĝirsu was a Mesopotamia, Mesopotamian god regarded as the tutelary deity of the city of Girsu, Ĝirsu, and as the chief god of the local pantheon of the state of Lagash. He shares many aspects with the god Ninurta. Ninĝirsu was identified as ...
, though his position in the Mesopotamian pantheon was less prominent. A close affinity between the character of Lumma and Ningirsu has also been pointed out by Daniel Schwemer.
Lumma could be invoked against harmful supernatural beings. An
incantation
An incantation, spell, charm, enchantment, or bewitchery is a magical formula intended to trigger a magical effect on a person or objects. The formula can be spoken, sung, or chanted. An incantation can also be performed during ceremonial ri ...
refers to him as a ''
gallu
In Sumerian and ancient Mesopotamian religion, gallûs (also called gallas; Akkadian ''gallû'' < Sumerian ) were
'' (in this context, a supernatural "gendarme"), and implores Dumuzi to hand over a malicious demon troubling the petitioner to him. Marchesi argues that he can be considered the "gendarme-demon ''par excellence''."
Bendt Alster suggested that Lumma might have been the personification of good luck. He was believed to bestow it upon people of good reputation. This aspect of his character is known from a proverb.
Lumma as a deified king
Thorkild Jacobsen
Thorkild Peter Rudolph Jacobsen (; 7 June 1904 – 2 May 1993) was a Danish historian specializing in Assyriology and Sumerian literature. He was one of the foremost scholars on the ancient Near East.
Biography
Thorkild Peter Rudolph Jacobsen re ...
suggested that Lumma represented the
deification
Apotheosis (, ), also called divinization or deification (), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity.
The origina ...
of a historical king,
Eannatum
Eannatum ( ; ) was a Sumerian ''Ensi (Sumerian), Ensi'' (ruler or king) of Lagash. He established one of the first verifiable empires in history, subduing Elam and destroying the city of Susa, and extending his domain over the rest of Sumer and Akk ...
of
Lagash
Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...
. The name Lumma is described in primary sources as Eannatum's "Tidnean name", Tidneans being a group of
Amorites
The Amorites () were an ancient Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic-speaking Bronze Age people from the Levant. Initially appearing in Sumerian records c. 2500 BC, they expanded and ruled most of the Levant, Mesopotamia and parts of Eg ...
. It has been suggested that the second name might indicate that his mother or grandmother was an Amorite woman, though this theory is not plausible in the light of direct references to his family hailing from Gursar, a small settlement in the state of Lagash. A further possibility is that he received it from Tidnean mercenaries serving in his army, but it is not universally accepted either. Gebhard J. Selz's proposal that Lumma is to be interpreted as a title of Dumuzi in this context and that it refers to the king serving as a symbolic representation of this god is implausible according to Gianni Marchesi. Yet another possibility is that Eannatum was only a
regnal name
A regnal name, regnant name, or reign name is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they accede ...
, while Lumma the given name of the same king, but the evidence is not conclusive.
Jacobsen pointed out that Lumma was associated with Ḫadaniš, who according to the ''
Sumerian King List
The ''Sumerian King List'' (abbreviated ''SKL'') or ''Chronicle of the One Monarchy'' is an ancient Composition (language), literary composition written in Sumerian language, Sumerian that was likely created and redacted to legitimize the claims ...
'' was a king of Ḫamazi, and on this basis concluded both of them were kings who at some point controlled
Nippur
Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory'': Vol. 1, Part 1, Ca ...
, placed their statues in
Ekur
Ekur ( ), also known as Duranki, is a Sumerian term meaning "mountain house". It is the assembly of the gods in the Garden of the gods, parallel in Greek mythology to Mount Olympus and was the most revered and sacred building of ancient Sumer ...
, and eventually came to be worshiped as deities associated with this temple. Other possible examples of minor deities who originated as deified legendary or historical rulers include Enlilazi, the "superintendent of Ekur", Ur-Suena, the herald of this temple's outer shrine,
Ur-Zababa
Ur-Zababa () is listed on the ''Sumerian King List'' as the second king of the 4th Dynasty of Kish. This text also records that Ur-Zababa had appointed Sargon of Akkad as his cup-bearer. Sargon was later the ruler of the Akkadian Empire.
Famil ...
, the counsellor of Ninurta, Malaka, and others.
Itūr-Mēr
Itūr-Mēr was a Mesopotamian god worshiped in the kingdom of Mari, and after its fall in the kingdom of Khana, especially in Terqa. His name is structured like a theophoric name rather than a typical theonym, which lead to the proposal that he w ...
and Yakrub-El worshiped in Mari have also been classified as such.
The proposal that the god Lumma is deified Eannatum has been accepted by Assyriologists such as Wilfred G. Lambert, Richard L. Litke, Ichiro Nakata,
Samuel Noah Kramer
Samuel Noah Kramer (September 28, 1897 – November 26, 1990) was one of the world's leading Assyriologists, an expert in Sumerian history and Sumerian language. After high school, he attended Temple University, before Dropsie University and t ...
, and a number of other researchers, but it did not find universal support and remains a matter of controversy. Josef Bauer due to the broad distribution of
theophoric name
A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or a god's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that d ...
s invoking Lumma argues that it is outright impossible for him to be a deified king of Lagash. The possibility that there were two deities named Lumma, a deified king and an unrelated independent figure, has also been considered. It is also possible that even if he did develop as a deified ruler, he was not identical with Eannatum, but rather with another bearer of the name Lumma, which was common in the third millennium. Another candidate is an '' ensi'' named Lumma mentioned in texts from Adab and
Shuruppak
Shuruppak ( , SU.KUR.RUki, "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara, was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur and 30 kilometers north of ancient Uruk on the banks of the Euphrates in Iraq's Al-Qādisiy ...
.
Associations with other deities
Lumma was frequently associated with Ḫadaniš, and both of them could be described as ''udug E2-kur-ra'', "guardians of Ekur". As such, they belonged to the circle of deities connected with
Enlil
Enlil, later known as Elil and Ellil, is an List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by t ...
. A single esoteric scholarly texts equates Lumma with
Nuska
Nuska or Nusku, possibly also known as Našuḫ, was a Mesopotamian god best attested as the sukkal (divine vizier) of Enlil. He was also associated with fire and light, and could be invoked as a protective deity against various demons, such as ...
and Ḫadaniš with
Sadarnunna
Sadarnunna was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of Nuska. Very little is known about her individual character. She was worshiped in Nippur, and appears alongside other deities of this city in texts from the Ur III period already. In la ...
, Nuska's spouse. However, elsewhere Nuska and Lumma occur as separate deities.
A lamentation refers to Lumma as a servant of a deity whose name is not preserved, who might be either Dumuzi, another similar dying god such as
Ningishzida
Ningishzida ( Sumerian: DNIN.G̃IŠ.ZID.DA, possible meaning "Lord f theGood Tree") was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part ...
or Lulil, or alternatively
Ningublaga
Ningublaga (, less commonly Ningublag) was a Mesopotamian god associated with cattle. His cult center was Kiabrig, a little known city located in the proximity of Ur. He belonged to the circle of deities related to the moon god, Nanna, and somet ...
. This connection reflects his relatively low rank in the Mesopotamian pantheon.
The goddess
Ninmug
Ninmug or Ninmuga was a Mesopotamian goddess. She was associated with artisanship, especially with metalworking, as evidenced by her epithet ''tibira kalamma'', "metalworker of the land." She could also be regarded as a goddess of birth and assist ...
could be addressed as Lumma's mother. While a standard list of deities of laments in some known examples places him next to Ereš'ugga ("queen of the dead", the wife of
Lugala'abba
Lugala'abba or Lugalabba was a Mesopotamian god associated with the sea, as well as with the underworld. It has been proposed that he was worshiped in Nippur. He is also attested in various god lists, in a seal inscription, and in the incantation ...
), this is most likely a mistake based on confusion between her and Ninmug resulting from the similar pronunciation of the ''
Emesal
Sumerian was the language of ancient Sumer. It is one of the oldest attested languages, dating back to at least 2900 BC. It is a local language isolate that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia, in the area that is modern-day Iraq.
Akkadian, a ...
'' forms of their names. Whether the connection between Lumma and Ninmug was based on the latter being involved in the
investiture
Investiture (from the Latin preposition ''in'' and verb ''vestire'', "dress" from ''vestis'' "robe") is a formal installation or ceremony that a person undergoes, often related to membership in Christian religious institutes as well as Christian kn ...
of kings and the former possibly being a deified ruler is not certain.
Worship
Most attestations of the worship of Lumma come from the Early Dynastic period and from the reign of the
Third Dynasty of Ur
The Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur in the 22nd and 21st centuries BC ( middle chronology). For a short period they were the preeminent power in Mesopotamia and their realm is sometimes referred to by ...
. It is presumed that he was venerated in
Nippur
Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory'': Vol. 1, Part 1, Ca ...
and
Umma
Umma () in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been sugges ...
. In sources from the former city, he appears in a number of
theophoric name
A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or a god's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that d ...
s. Many are also known from the latter, including that of the local ruler
Ur-Lumma
''Ur-Lumma'' (, ; ) was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Umma. His father was King Enakalle, who had been vanquished by Eannatum of Lagash. Ur-Lumma claimed the title of "King" ('' Lugal''). His reign lasted at least 12 years.
Ur-Lumma ag ...
. He used the title ''
lugal
( Sumerian: ) is the Sumerian term for "king, ruler". Literally, the term means "big man." In Sumerian, ''lú'' " 𒇽" is "man" and ''gal'' " 𒃲" is "great", or "big."
It was one of several Sumerian titles that a ruler of a city-state could ...
'' in his own inscription, but texts from
Lagash
Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...
call him an ''ensi''. Another Ur-Lumma was an official during the reign of Lugalzagesi. Lumma is also attested in an offering list from Umma from the Ur III period.
Due to Lumma's connection to
Ninmug
Ninmug or Ninmuga was a Mesopotamian goddess. She was associated with artisanship, especially with metalworking, as evidenced by her epithet ''tibira kalamma'', "metalworker of the land." She could also be regarded as a goddess of birth and assist ...
it has been suggested that at some point he might have belonged to the local pantheon of Kisiga, a city which according to the Early Dynastic ''
Zame Hymns
''Zame Hymns'' or ''Zami Hymns'' are a sequence of 70 Sumerian language, Sumerian hymns from the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia), Early Dynastic period discovered in Abu Salabikh. Their conventional title is modern, and reflects the recurring ...
'' was her cult center.
In Adab, Lumma is attested in various theophoric names from the third millennium BCE, such as Lu-Lumma, Ur-Lumma and Lumma-zi. Further examples are also available from
Shuruppak
Shuruppak ( , SU.KUR.RUki, "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara, was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur and 30 kilometers north of ancient Uruk on the banks of the Euphrates in Iraq's Al-Qādisiy ...
and Ur. Lumma is also attested in the names of various fields and canals. One example is Lummagimdu, "good like Lumma".