Lucius Papirius Cursor
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Lucius Papirius Cursor (c.365–after 310 BC) was a celebrated politician and general of the early
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...
, who was five times
consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states thro ...
, three times
magister equitum The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be n ...
, and twice
dictator A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute Power (social and political), power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a polity. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to r ...
. He was the most important Roman commander during the
Second Samnite War The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains south of Rome and north of the Lucanians, Lucania ...
(327–304 BC), during which he received three
triumphs ''Triumphs'' ( Italian: ''I Trionfi'') is a 14th-century Italian series of poems, written by Petrarch in the Tuscan language. The poem evokes the Roman ceremony of triumph, where victorious generals and their armies were led in procession by the ...
. He was a member of the patrician
gens In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; : gentes ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same ''nomen gentilicium'' and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens, sometimes identified by a distinct cognomen, was cal ...
'' Papiria'' of ancient Rome. Cursor's strictness was proverbial; he was a man of immense bodily strength, while his bravery was beyond dispute. He was given the
cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...
Cursor from his swiftness of foot. Most of what is known of Cursor's life comes from the monumental ''
History of Rome The history of Rome includes the history of the city of Rome as well as the civilisation of ancient Rome. Roman history has been influential on the modern world, especially in the history of the Catholic Church, and Roman law has influenced m ...
'' written by
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
during the reign of
Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
. Livy portrayed Cursor as an invincible hero, who avenged the humiliation of the
Caudine Forks Valle Caudina (Caudine Valley) is a densely settled Italian valley with about 69,000 inhabitants. It is located in Campania, between the Province of Benevento and the Province of Avellino. Comunes In the Valle Caudina there are 14 Italian ''comune ...
in 321 BC, when the Roman army had to pass under the yoke. In a famous digression, he even wrote that had
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...
turned his army against Rome, he would have met his match with Cursor. With this narrative, Livy participated in the Roman propaganda sponsored by Augustus, which idealised several figures of the first part of the Republic. As a result, it is difficult to separate his life from the fiction elaborated by later Roman authors.


Family background

Cursor belonged to the patrician
gens In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; : gentes ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same ''nomen gentilicium'' and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens, sometimes identified by a distinct cognomen, was cal ...
Papiria. The first Papirii of importance were
Gaius Gaius, sometimes spelled Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen). People * Gaius (biblical figure) (1st century AD) *Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist * Gaius Acilius * Gaius Antonius * Gaius Antonius Hybrida * Gaius Asinius Gal ...
and Manius Papirius, respectively the first Pontifex Maximus and
Rex Sacrorum In ancient Roman religion, the ''rex sacrorum'' ("king of the sacred things", also sometimes ''rex sacrificulus'') was a senatorial priesthood reserved for patricians. Although in the historical era, the '' pontifex maximus'' was the head of ...
of the Republic in 509. However, there is some doubt of the authenticity of these offices, as they could have been invented by a later Papirius to enhance the prestige of his family. The Papirii were one of the last patrician gentes to reach the consulship, with Lucius Papirius Mugillanus, only elected in 444. Cursor's grandfather was censor in 393, then
consular tribune A consular tribune was putatively a type of magistrate in the early Roman Republic. According to Roman tradition, colleges of consular tribunes held office throughout the fifth and fourth centuries BC during the so-called "Conflict of the Or ...
in 387 and 385.
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
gives this man the cognomen Cursor, the first time it appears in history, but in a later statement says that the cognomen Cursor was first bestowed to his grandson because of his running speed. It is therefore more likely that the cognomen of Cursor's grandfather was Mugillanus, the most important branch of the Papirii in the 5th and 4th centuries, because Cursor himself is sometimes called Mugillanus in ancient sources. The structure of Roman names was fluid at the time, and several contemporary changes of cognomen are recorded, such as
Appius Claudius Caecus Appius Claudius Caecus ( 312–279 BC) was a statesman and writer from the Roman Republic. He is best known for two major building projects: the Appian Way (Latin: Via Appia), the first major Roman road, and the first Roman aqueduct, aqueduc ...
, initially named Crassus. Likewise, Cursor's initial name was probably Mugillanus. Cursor's father was named Spurius, but nothing is known on his life. Robert Develin suggests that Cursor was born ''circa'' 365.


Career


Magister equitum (340 BC)

The first mention of Cursor in history took place in 340 with his appointment as
Magister equitum The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be n ...
by his cousin, the dictator Lucius Papirius Crassus. The reason for the appointment of a dictator was the death of the consul Publius Decius Mus while fighting the
Latins The term Latins has been used throughout history to refer to various peoples, ethnicities and religious groups using Latin or the Latin-derived Romance languages, as part of the legacy of the Roman Empire. In the Ancient World, it referred to th ...
, and the illness of the other, the famous Titus Manlius Torquatus. Since 341 Rome had been waging the
Latin War The (Second) Latin War of 340–338 BCThe Romans customarily dated events by noting the consuls who held office that year. The Latin War broke out in the year that Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus and Publius Decius Mus were consuls and ende ...
against its former Latin allies.
Tim Cornell Timothy J. Cornell (born 1946) is a British historian specializing in ancient Rome. He is an Emeritus Professor of Ancient History at the University of Manchester, having retired from his teaching position in 2011. Cornell received his bachelor's ...
, ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VII part 2'', pp. 360, 361.
Livy says that the dictator Crassus was supposed to repel an army from the city of
Antium Antium was an Ancient history, ancient coastal town in Latium, south of Rome. An oppidum was founded by people of Latial culture (11th century BC or the beginning of the 1st millennium BC), then it was the main stronghold of the Volsci people unti ...
which was operating in southern
Latium Latium ( , ; ) is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire. Definition Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil (Old Latium) on whic ...
, but did not engage them. However, modern historians reject most of the details told by Livy on this war, as he made several anachronisms derived from the Social War of 91–87 BC.


Praetor (332 BC)

In 332, Cursor might have been the praetor who passed the law granting half-citizenship to the city of Acerrae in
Campania Campania is an administrative Regions of Italy, region of Italy located in Southern Italy; most of it is in the south-western portion of the Italian Peninsula (with the Tyrrhenian Sea to its west), but it also includes the small Phlegraean Islan ...
, 16 km northeast of
Naples Naples ( ; ; ) is the Regions of Italy, regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its Metropolitan City of N ...
. Called ''lex Papiria de civitate Acerranorum'', it is the oldest known law passed by a praetor. However, it is also possible that this man, only named "Lucius Papirius" by Livy, was the dictator of 340, or the future censor of 318, both named Lucius Papirius Crassus. After its victory at the end of the Latin War, Rome overhauled its relationships with the cities under its domination, by using a range of different statuses. Campanian cities were given half-citizenship, called '' civitas sine suffragio'' ("citizenship without suffrage").Cornell, ''Beginnings of Rome'', pp. 349–351. This policy was likely inspired by
Quintus Publilius Philo Quintus Publilius Philo was a Roman politician who lived during the 4th century BC. His birth date is not provided by extant sources, however, a reasonable estimate is about 365 BC, since he first became consul in 339 BC at a time when consuls co ...
, who was the leading proponent of the Roman expansion towards Campania, and also seating censor in 332.


Consul I (326 BC)

The elections for 326 were subject to an intense political battle related to the Struggle of the Orders—the plebeians' campaign to obtain equal rights with the patricians, which took place during the fourth century. The consul elected first in the previous year, the plebeian Publilius Philo, was normally in charge of holding the elections, but as he was besieging Naples and could not come back to Rome, he appointed the plebeian
Marcus Claudius Marcellus Marcus Claudius Marcellus (; 270 – 208 BC) was a Roman general and politician during the 3rd century BC. Five times elected as Roman consul, consul of the Roman Republic (222, 215, 214, 210, and 208 BC). Marcellus gained the most prestigious a ...
dictator for this purpose. However, the all-patrician College of Augurs found that Marcellus had been faultily appointed and led to his resignation. This move was doubtless a political manoeuvre from the patricians, as by doing so the augurs forced the appointment of an
interrex The interrex (plural interreges) was an extraordinary magistrate during the Roman Kingdom and Republic. Initially, the interrex was appointed after the death of the king of Rome until the election of his successor, hence its name—a ruler "betwee ...
, who was always a patrician. Interreges typically occurred when a plebeian were in position to conduct the elections. However, Livy records 15 interreges in the elections for 326, the highest number ever in a single election, which means that the political struggle lasted for at least 70 days—as an interrex served for up to five days, and was replaced by another one if he could not succeed in holding the elections. The 15th interrex was Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas, who presided over the elections of Cursor and the plebeian
Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus was a Roman politician and general who lived in the mid-fourth century BC and served multiple times as consul. Family Poetelius was a member of the plebeian Poetelia gens, a family which had previously had no consul ...
. Poetelius was the consul ''prior'', which means the Centuriate Assembly elected him before Cursor; it was the first time that a plebeian (Poetelius) was elected consul ''prior'' through an election held by a patrician. Some sources make Poetelius the same as the man who was already consul in 360 and 346, but such a gap is improbable and Cursor's colleague was more likely his son. Aemilius Privernas and Cursor possibly belonged to a group of patricians headed by the
Aemilii The gens Aemilia, originally written Aimilia, was one of the greatest patrician families at ancient Rome. The gens was of great antiquity, and claimed descent from Numa Pompilius, the second King of Rome. Its members held the highest offices ...
that supported the demands of the plebeian elite, at the time championed by Publilius Philo. Both consuls held command during the
Second Samnite war The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains south of Rome and north of the Lucanians, Lucania ...
, which had started the previous year after the Samnites took control of Naples. Livy does not distinguish the consuls' activity; he says that they captured
Allifae Allifae was an ancient town of Italy, a center of Oscan or Samnite origin, situated in the valley of the Vulturnus, at the foot of the lofty mountain group now called the Monte Matese, about 40 km northwest of Telesia, and 27 km east ...
(modern Alife), Callifae (perhaps near Pratella), and Rufrium (likely Presenzano). All three cities are located in the valley of the
Volturno The Volturno (ancient Latin name Volturnus, from ''volvere'', to roll) is a river in south-central Italy. Geography It rises in the Abruzzese central Apennines of Samnium near Castel San Vincenzo (province of Isernia, Molise) and flows southe ...
in northern Campania. However, the story can be doubted as Livy tells later that Allifae was still under Samnite control. The main feature of their consulship was the '' Lex Poetelia Papiria de nexis'', which abolished ''
nexum ''Nexum'' was a debt bondage contract in the early Roman Republic. A debtor pledged his person as collateral (finance), collateral if he defaulted on his loan. Details as to the contract are obscure and some modern scholars dispute its existence. I ...
'', a form of debt-bondage.


First dictatorship and the quarrel with Rullianus (325 BC)

The next year, Cursor was appointed dictator by the consul Lucius Furius Camillus, who was too ill to lead the army against the Samnites. Cursor in turn chose
Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus (or Rullus) was a Patrician (ancient Rome), patrician, politician and soldier of the Roman Republic during the fourth and early third century BC. He was the son of Marcus Fabius Ambustus (consul 360 BC), Marcus F ...
as his magister equitum. Livy tells that while they were already campaigning in Samnium, Cursor learnt that the auspices had not been properly taken and he had to redo the process in Rome. He left Rullianus on the field, but forbade him to engage the enemy. Rullianus disobeyed when he heard of the presence of a reckless Samnite army, which he crushed at Imbrinium. He then burnt the spoils to prevent Cursor from using them in a triumph, and sent a letter to the senate about his victory. Once aware of his subordinate's disobedience, Cursor rushed to the camp and sentenced him to death. Despite supplications from the army, the senate, and the
tribunes of the plebs Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune () was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of the Roman Senate ...
, Cursor only withdrew his death order when Rullianus and his father Marcus Fabius Ambustus knelt and apologised before him. The story is very elaborate and most details are invented. Several modern historians have suggested it is an anticipation of the rivalry between the dictator
Fabius Maximus Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (), surnamed Cunctator ( 280 – 203 BC), was a Roman statesman and general of the third century BC. He was consul five times (233, 228, 215, 214, and 209 BC) and was appointed dictator in 221 and 217 BC. He wa ...
(Rullianus' grandson) and his magister equitum Marcus Minucius Rufus in 217 BC. However, it is possible that the bare event—that Cursor and Rullianus quarrelled—is historical. Livy mentions that the story was told by Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian and a relative of Rullianus. Perhaps some details—such as the episode of the burnt spoils—come from family tradition, or private archives kept by the Fabii. At the end of his dictatorship, Cursor vowed the construction of the Temple of Quirinus, which was finally dedicated by his son during his first consulship on 17 February 293. The temple was built on the top of the
Quirinal Hill The Quirinal Hill (; ; ) is one of the Seven Hills of Rome, at the north-east of the city center. It is the location of the official residence of the Italian head of state, who resides in the Quirinal Palace; by metonymy "the Quirinal" has c ...
, east of the current
Palazzo Barberini The Palazzo Barberini () is a 17th-century palace in Rome, facing the Piazza Barberini in Rione Trevi. Today, it houses the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, the main national collection of older paintings in Rome. History Around 1549 Cardinal ...
. The reason for the long delay (32 years) was possibly that the construction had to be funded by Cursor and also because his son waited until he became consul to make the dedication. This ceremony could only be summoned by a magistrate with ''
imperium In ancient Rome, ''imperium'' was a form of authority held by a citizen to control a military or governmental entity. It is distinct from '' auctoritas'' and '' potestas'', different and generally inferior types of power in the Roman Republic a ...
''. The vowing of a temple to Quirinus by Cursor was the first time in Roman history that an individual pledged to build a temple on private money alone. The few temples built before were funded by the state, but Cursor's example was rapidly followed by many others in the third century, thanks to the rapid conquest of Italy by the Republic, which brought considerable booty.


Consul II (320 BC)

Like in 326, the elections for 320 were subject to trouble. In 321, the two consuls were trapped in a Samnite ambush and forced to pass under the yoke, a famous event known as the disaster of the Caudine Forks. They shut themselves in their home once they returned to Rome, and only appointed a dictator for holding the elections. However, the dictator Quintus Fabius Ambustus (perhaps the uncle of Fabius Rullianus) was forced to resign after a fault was found during his appointment; his successor Marcus Aemilius Papus likewise resigned. This led the consuls to in turn abdicate; possibly followed by all the other magistrates. The elections were then held immediately, without waiting until the end of the consular year. Two interreges are mentioned, Fabius Rullianus, then Marcus Valerius Corvus, who successfully presided over the elections. Following the early abdication of the consuls, the consular year started for some years in late autumn or early winter. Cursor was thus elected consul a second time, together with the plebeian Quintus Publilius Philo, consul for the third time. Livy states explicitly that Philo was the consul ''prior'' and Cursor ''posterior'', but the
Fasti Capitolini The ''Fasti Capitolini'', or Capitoline Fasti, are a list of the chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, extending from the early fifth century BC down to the reign of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Together with similar lists found at Rom ...
reverse the consuls' order and give Cursor the first place. The Fasti were made under
Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
by the
College of Pontiffs The College of Pontiffs (; see ''collegium'') was a body of the ancient Rome, ancient Roman state whose members were the highest-ranking priests of the Religion in ancient Rome, state religion. The college consisted of the ''pontifex maximus'' an ...
, whose members often moved their ancestors to first place in order to enhance the prestige of their family—a policy supported by Augustus who tried to revive several prominent patrician gentes—since being elected ''prior'' was the subject of great pride. Conversely, they moved to second place some men that had repeated consulships, such as Philo, to avoid the comparison with Augustus, who continuously held the consulship between 31 and 23 BC. The election of both consuls broke the '' Lex Genucia'', passed in 342, which theoretically forbade iteration of a magistracy within ten years. Cursor had been consul in 326, and Philo in 327. However, Corey Brennan suggests that this law only forbade iteration within ten years, so it had lapsed by 332. Philo is the only securely attested political ally of Cursor, as they are found together in office several times, and they likely ran in the elections together in a political ticket. This pattern of a patrician and a plebeian repeatedly sharing the consulship or other magistracies is a feature of Roman politics in the middle Republic, and multiple instances are known, including that of Cursor's son, who shared the consulship twice with Spurius Carvilius Maximus. Cursor and Philo were at the time the most competent generals, and Livy writes it was the main reason behind their election because of the military situation after the Caudine Forks. Stephen Oakley nevertheless doubts that their election was as unanimous as Livy tells. Philo received command of the army in Samnium, near Caudium, where he won a battle. Meanwhile, Cursor could advance unhindered to Arpi in
Apulia Apulia ( ), also known by its Italian language, Italian name Puglia (), is a Regions of Italy, region of Italy, located in the Southern Italy, southern peninsular section of the country, bordering the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Strait of Ot ...
, from where he besieged Luceria in order to recover the Roman hostages given to the Samnites after the Caudine Forks. Then Philo moved to Luceria and took over the siege, while Cursor destroyed the supply lines of the Samnites to force an engagement. At this point, a delegation of Taras attempted to mediate between the Romans and the Samnites, probably trying to favour the latter. While pretending to consider the Tarentine offer, Cursor prepared for battle. The next day, the consuls rejected the peace offer and attacked the surprised Samnites, who were defeated. Cursor then resumed the siege of Luceria, which later surrendered. The Roman hostages were returned, the standards recovered, and Cursor forced the garrison to in turn pass under the yoke, so he could wash the humiliation of the Caudine Forks. This story told by Livy has nevertheless been strongly challenged by modern historians as early as 1870. E. T. Salmon considers that Livy's story is "utterly incredible", because a peace treaty was concluded after the Caudine Forks and that five years of peace followed. He assigns the events told by Livy in 320 to 315, when Cursor was also in charge of the military operations. Other historians have moved to later years the events told by Livy, notably the Tarentine mediation.


Consul III (319 BC)

Cursor was reelected consul in 319, this time as consul ''prior'', with the plebeian Quintus Aulius Cerretanus, who had already been consul in 323.


Consul IV (315 BC)

In 315, Cursor was elected to a fourth consulship, alongside his former colleague Publilius Philo, again as consul ''prior''. The Second Samnite War entered in its second phase that year, following the five year peace signed after the Caudine Forks, which is probably the main reason for the election of Philo and Cursor, as they were the two most experienced commanders at Rome. As explained above, Livy's description of the campaign for 320 mostly refer to events that took place in 315, so Cursor likely besieged and took Luceria that year. However, his account of the events for 315 are very confused: he says that Fabius Rullianus was appointed dictator and commanded the army for the whole year, while the consuls stayed in Rome, which is constitutionally impossible. A more credible explanation is that Fabius became dictator only when the Samnite threat arose.


Consul V (313 BC)

In 313, Cursor was elected consul ''prior'' alongside the plebeian
Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus ( late 4th century BC) was a Roman general and statesman, he was elected consul of the Roman Republic thrice, he was also appointed '' dictator'' or ''magister equitum'' thrice, and censor in 307 BC. In 311, he made a ...
, who had already been consul in 317.


Dictator (310 BC)

The final mention of Cursor in the sources took place in 310, when he was appointed dictator for the second time. He in turn appointed as magister equitum his former colleague Bubulcus Brutus. In 310 BC, when the
Samnites The Samnites () were an ancient Italic peoples, Italic people who lived in Samnium, which is located in modern inland Abruzzo, Molise, and Campania in south-central Italy. An Oscan language, Oscan-speaking Osci, people, who originated as an offsh ...
again rose, Cursor was appointed dictator for the second time, and gained a decisive victory at Longula, in honour of which he celebrated a magnificent triumph. Cursor displayed the weapons captured from the Samnites in the triumphal procession, during which Livy tells that the Samnite gold-plated shields made a strong impression. As a result, he gave them to the silversmiths on the Forum, in order to decorate the ''
taberna A ''taberna'' (: ''tabernae'') was a type of shop or stall in Ancient Rome. Originally meaning a single-room shop for the sale of goods and services, ''tabernae'' were often incorporated into domestic dwellings on the ground level flanking the ...
e'' with enemy's spoils. This practice of publicly displaying enemy spoils was new at the time in Rome, and was inspired by the Greeks. Livy adds that from this point on aediles regularly decorated the Forum for the
Ludi Romani The ''Ludi Romani'' ("Roman Games"; see '' ludi'') was a religious festival in ancient Rome held annually, starting in 366 BC, from September 12 to September 14. In the 1st century BC, an extra day was added in honor of the deified Julius Caesa ...
after the precedent set by Cursor. Several modern historians have nevertheless cast some doubts on the whole event, as many features of both the battle and its subsequent triumph closely resemble the later triumph of Cursor's son in 293, likewise against the Samnites. His
cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...
, ''Cursor'', means "The Runner", as he was able to walk over 50 Roman miles a day in full marching order and demanded the same from his soldiers. Legend says that when cavalry veterans came to him asking for some privileges, he gave them but one privilege: Such harshness to his soldiers allowed them to be defeated initially. But later he had regained their good-will by more lenient treatment and lavish promises of booty; they fought with enthusiasm and gained a complete victory. His son of the same name, also a distinguished general, completed the subjection of Samnium (272 BC). He set up a
sundial A sundial is a horology, horological device that tells the time of day (referred to as civil time in modern usage) when direct sunlight shines by the position of the Sun, apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the ...
, the first of its kind in Rome, in the temple of Quirinus.


Legacy


Comparison with Alexander the Great

In the 9th book of his ''Ab Urbe Condita'', Livy made a much-discussed disgression on
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...
, who had died a few years before the events he describes. He says that Rome would have withstood an attack from Alexander if he had attempted to conquer it. This passage comes just after he drew a panegyric of Cursor, and both men are implicitly compared. The disgression may originate from the real fear at the time in Rome of a Greek invasion of Italy. During the Pyrrhic War, Appius Caecus made a famous speech—the first ever recorded in Rome—in which he mentions this possibility.


In Augustus' Hall of Fame (2 BC)

In 2 BC, Augustus finished the construction of a new Forum around the Temple of Mars Ultor. On either side of the forum were two galleries of marble statues; on the northeastern side he placed the statues of his ancestors and other members of his family, starting with
Aeneas In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas ( , ; from ) was a Troy, Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus (mythology), Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy ...
; on the southwestern side he placed a gallery of heroes, dubbed a "Hall of Fame", starting with
Romulus Romulus (, ) was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus and his contemporaries. Although many of th ...
, the first
Roman king The king of Rome () was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom, a legendary period of Roman history that functioned as an elective monarchy. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine H ...
. Each statue had an ''elogium'', a plaque telling the deeds of the man portrayed. It is possible that Augustus was inspired by
Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Rome, ancient Roman poet of the Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Augustan period. He composed three of the most fa ...
's ''
Aeneid The ''Aeneid'' ( ; or ) is a Latin Epic poetry, epic poem that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Troy, Trojan who fled the Trojan War#Sack of Troy, fall of Troy and travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Ancient Rome ...
'' and Livy's ''Ab Urbe Condita''—the two most important literary works of his reign—when making his choice of statues. Cursor logically features among the list of heroes, and his ''elogium'' is partially preserved. The surviving part tells about the quarrel with Rullianus.


Modern Era

Cursor features in the ''
Nuremberg Chronicle The ''Nuremberg Chronicle'' is an illustrated encyclopedia consisting of world historical accounts, as well as accounts told through biblical paraphrase. Subjects include human history in relation to the Bible, illustrated mythological creatures, ...
'', an illustrated encyclopaedia composed by
Hartmann Schedel Hartmann Schedel (13 February 1440 – 28 November 1514) was a German historian, physician, humanist, and one of the first cartographers to use the printing press. He was born and died in Nuremberg. Matheolus Perusinus served as his tutor. ...
and published in 1493. Schedel told about his quarrel with Rullianus.Schedel, ''Nuremberg Chronicle''
f. lxxix r
Named ''Lucio Papirio'' or ''Lucio Papirio dittatore'', he is the subject of several Baroque operas. The
Dutch Golden Age The Dutch Golden Age ( ) was a period in the history of the Netherlands which roughly lasted from 1588, when the Dutch Republic was established, to 1672, when the '' Rampjaar'' occurred. During this period, Dutch trade, scientific development ...
painter Gerard De Lairesse pictured the famous story of Cursor's quarrel with Fabius Maximus Rullianus in 1688. The painting was part of an ensemble to decorate the
Binnenhof The Binnenhof (; ) is a complex of buildings in the city centre of The Hague, Netherlands, next to the Hofvijver (Court Pond). It houses the meeting place of both houses of the States General of the Netherlands, as well as the Ministry of Gener ...
in
The Hague The Hague ( ) is the capital city of the South Holland province of the Netherlands. With a population of over half a million, it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Situated on the west coast facing the North Sea, The Hague is the c ...
. In the 18th century, Caleb Whitefoord published whimsical misreadings of newspaper texts over the signature "Papyrius Cursor."


Footnotes


References


Bibliography


Ancient sources

*
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
, ''
Ab Urbe Condita ''Ab urbe condita'' (; 'from the founding of Rome, founding of the City'), or (; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as AUC or AVC, expresses a date in years since 753 BC, 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome. It is ...
'' ( English translation by Rev. Canon Roberts on
Wikisource Wikisource is an online wiki-based digital library of free-content source text, textual sources operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole; it is also the name for each instance of that project, one f ...
).


Modern sources

* Sheila L. Ager, ''Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World, 337–90 B.C.'', Berkeley, University of California Press, 1996. *Jean-Luc Bastien, ''Le triomphe romain et son utilisation politique : à Rome aux trois derniers siècles de la République'', Rome, Collection de l'École française de Rome, 2007. * T. Corey Brennan, ''The Praetorship in the Roman Republic'', Oxford University Press, 2000. * T. Robert S. Broughton, ''The Magistrates of the Roman Republic'', American Philological Association, 1951–1952. * Timothy J. Cornell, ''The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)'', London, Routledge, 1995. * Robert Develin, ''Patterns in Office-Holding 366-49 B.C.'', Brussels, Latomus, 1979. * Henri Etcheto,
Cognomen et appartenance familiale dans l'aristocratie médio-républicaine : à propos de l'identité du consul patricien de 328 av. J.-C.
, in ''Athenaeum'', 91–2, 2003, pp. 445–468. *Endre Ferenczy, ''From the patrician state to the patricio-plebeian state'', Amsterdam, A.M. Hakkert, 1976. * Gary Forsythe, ''A Critical History of Early Rome, from Prehistory to the First Punic War'', Berkeley, University of California Press, 2005. * Joseph Geiger, ''The First Hall of Fame, A Study of the Statues in the'' Forum Augustum, Leiden/Boston, Brill, 2008. * Andreas Graeber, ''Auctoritas patrum, Formen und Wege der Senatsherrschaft zwischen Politik und Tradition'', Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 2001. *
Friedrich Münzer Friedrich Münzer (22 April 1868 – 20 October 1942) was a German classical scholar noted for the development of prosopography, particularly for his demonstrations of how family relationships in ancient Rome connected to political struggles. He d ...
, ''Roman Aristocratic Parties and Families'', translated by Thérèse Ridley, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 (originally published in 1920). *H. Nissen,
Der Caudinische Friede
, in ''Rheinisches Museum für Philologie'' , 1870, Neue Folge, Vol. 25 (1870), pp. 1–65. * Stephen P. Oakley, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume I, Introduction and Book VI'', Oxford University Press, 1997. * ——, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume II, Books VI-VIII'', Oxford University Press, 1998. * ——, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume III, Book IX'', Oxford University Press, 2005. * ——, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume IV, Book X'', Oxford University Press, 2005. *
August Pauly August Friedrich von Pauly (; ; 9 May 1796, in Benningen am Neckar – 2 May 1845, in Stuttgart) was a German educator and classical philologist. From 1813 to 1818 he studied at the University of Tübingen, then furthered his education at Heide ...
,
Georg Wissowa Georg Otto August Wissowa (17 June 1859 – 11 May 1931) was a German classical philologist born in Neudorf, near Breslau. Education and career Wissowa studied classical philology under August Reifferscheid at the University of Bresl ...
, Friedrich Münzer, ''et alii'', ''
Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft The Pauly encyclopedias or the Pauly-Wissowa family of encyclopedias, are a set of related encyclopedias on Greco-Roman world, Greco-Roman classical studies, topics and scholarship. The first of these, or (1839–1852), was begun by compiler A ...
'' (abbreviated ''RE''), J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 1894–1980. * K. A. Raaflaub & M. Toher (editors), ''Between Republic and Empire. Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate'', Berkeley, 1990. *
Jörg Rüpke Jörg Rüpke (born 27 December 1962 in Herford, West Germany) is a German scholar of comparative religion and classical philology, recipient of the Gay-Lussac Humboldt Prize in 2008, and of the Advanced Grant of the European Research Council in ...
, Anne Glock, David Richardson (translator), ''Fasti Sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499'', Oxford University Press, 2008. * Edward Togo Salmon,
Samnium and the Samnites
', Cambridge University Press, 1967. *
Hartmann Schedel Hartmann Schedel (13 February 1440 – 28 November 1514) was a German historian, physician, humanist, and one of the first cartographers to use the printing press. He was born and died in Nuremberg. Matheolus Perusinus served as his tutor. ...
, '' Liber Chronicarum'' 'Nuremberg Chronicle'' Nuremberg, 1493. scan
on Cambridge University Library website">igita
scan
on Cambridge University Library website * E. Stuart Staveley,
The political aims of Appius Claudius Caecus
, in ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', Bd. 8, H. 4 (Oct., 1959), pp. 410–433. *
Lily Ross Taylor Lily Ross Taylor (August 12, 1886 – November 18, 1969) was an American academic and author, who in 1917 became the first female Fellow of the American Academy in Rome. Biography Born in Auburn, Alabama, Lily Ross Taylor developed an interest ...
and T. Robert S. Broughton,
The Order of the Two Consuls' Names in the Yearly Lists
, ''Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome'', 19 (1949), pp. 3–14. * ——,
New Indications of Augustan Editing in the Capitoline Fasti
, ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 46, No. 2 (Apr., 1951), pp. 73–80. * —— and T. Robert S. Broughton,
The Order of the Consuls' Names in Official Republican Lists
, ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', vol. 17, part 2 (Apr., 1968), pp. 166–172. * Frank William Walbank, A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie (editors), ''
The Cambridge Ancient History ''The Cambridge Ancient History'' is a multi-volume work of ancient history from Prehistory to Late Antiquity, published by Cambridge University Press. The first series, consisting of 12 volumes, was planned in 1919 by Irish historian J. B. Bur ...
, vol. VII, part 2
The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C.
', Cambridge University Press, 1989. * Adam Ziolkowski, ''The Temples of Mid-Republican Rome and their Historical and Topographical Context'', Rome, 1992. {{DEFAULTSORT:Papirius Cursor, Lucius 4th-century BC Roman consuls Ancient Roman dictators Ancient Roman generals Cursor, Lucius