Learning analytics is the measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for purposes of understanding and optimizing learning and the environments in which it occurs.
The growth of
online learning since the 1990s, particularly in
higher education
Higher education is tertiary education leading to award of an academic degree. Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after compl ...
, has contributed to the advancement of Learning Analytics as student data can be captured and made available for analysis. When learners use an
LMS LMS may refer to:
Science and technology
* Labeled magnitude scale, a scaling technique
* Learning management system, education software
* Least mean squares filter, producing least mean square error
* Leiomyosarcoma, a rare form of cancer
* Lenz ...
,
social media
Social media are interactive media technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual communities and networks. While challenges to the definition of ''social me ...
, or similar online tools, their clicks, navigation patterns, time on task,
social network
A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for ...
s,
information flow
In discourse-based grammatical theory, information flow is any tracking of referential information by speakers. Information may be ''new,'' just introduced into the conversation; ''given,'' already active in the speakers' consciousness; or ''old ...
, and concept development through discussions can be tracked. The rapid development of
massive open online course
A massive open online course (MOOC ) or an open online course is an online course aimed at unlimited participation and open access via the Web. In addition to traditional course materials, such as filmed lectures, readings, and problem sets, ma ...
s (MOOCs) offers additional data for researchers to evaluate teaching and learning in online environments.
[
]
Definition
Although a majority of Learning Analytics literature has started to adopt the aforementioned definition, the definition and aims of Learning Analytics are still contested.
Learning Analytics as a prediction model
One earlier definition discussed by the community suggested that Learning Analytics is the use of intelligent data, learner-produced data, and analysis models to discover information and social connections for predicting and advising people's learning.[Siemens, George. "What Are Learning Analytics?" Elearnspace, August 25, 2010]
But this definition has been criticised by George Siemens and Mike Sharkey
Mike may refer to:
Animals
* Mike (cat), cat and guardian of the British Museum
* Mike the Headless Chicken, chicken that lived for 18 months after his head had been cut off
* Mike (chimpanzee), a chimpanzee featured in several books and documenta ...
.
Learning Analytics as a generic design framework
Dr. Wolfgang Greller and Dr. Hendrik Drachsler defined learning analytics holistically as a framework. They proposed that it is a generic design framework that can act as a useful guide for setting up analytics services in support of educational practice and learner guidance, in quality assurance, curriculum development, and in improving teacher effectiveness and efficiency. It uses a general morphological analysis (GMA) to divide the domain into six "critical dimensions".
Learning Analytics as data-driven decision making
The broader term "Analytics
Analytics is the systematic computational analysis of data or statistics. It is used for the discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It also entails applying data patterns toward effective decision-making. It ...
" has been defined as the science of examining data to draw conclusions and, when used in decision making
In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and decisionmaking) is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options. It could be either ra ...
, to present paths or courses of action. From this perspective, Learning Analytics has been defined as a particular case of Analytics
Analytics is the systematic computational analysis of data or statistics. It is used for the discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It also entails applying data patterns toward effective decision-making. It ...
, in which decision making
In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and decisionmaking) is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options. It could be either ra ...
aims to improve learning and education. During the 2010s, this definition of analytics has gone further to incorporate elements of operations research
Operations research ( en-GB, operational research) (U.S. Air Force Specialty Code: Operations Analysis), often shortened to the initialism OR, is a discipline that deals with the development and application of analytical methods to improve dec ...
such as decision tree
A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to display an algorithm that only contains co ...
s and strategy maps to establish predictive models and to determine probabilities for certain courses of action.[
]
Learning Analytics as an application of analytics
Another approach for defining Learning Analytics is based on the concept of Analytics
Analytics is the systematic computational analysis of data or statistics. It is used for the discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It also entails applying data patterns toward effective decision-making. It ...
interpreted as the ''process'' of developing actionable insights through problem definition and the application of statistical model
A statistical model is a mathematical model that embodies a set of statistical assumptions concerning the generation of sample data (and similar data from a larger population). A statistical model represents, often in considerably idealized form, ...
s and analysis against existing and/or simulated future data.[Powell, Stephen, and Sheila MacNeill. Institutional Readiness for Analytics A Briefing Paper. CETIS Analytics Series. JISC CETIS, December 2012. .] From this point of view, Learning Analytics emerges as a type of Analytics
Analytics is the systematic computational analysis of data or statistics. It is used for the discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It also entails applying data patterns toward effective decision-making. It ...
(as a ''process''), in which the data, the problem definition and the insights are learning-related.
In 2016, a research jointly conducted by the New Media Consortium (NMC) and the EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative (ELI) -an EDUCAUSE Program- describes six areas of emerging technology that will have had significant impact on higher education
Higher education is tertiary education leading to award of an academic degree. Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after compl ...
and creative expression by the end of 2020. As a result of this research, Learning analytics was defined as an educational application of web analytics
Web analytics is the measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of web data to understand and optimize web usage. Web analytics is not just a process for measuring web traffic but can be used as a tool for business and market research a ...
aimed at learner profiling, a process of gathering and analyzing details of individual student interactions in online learning activities.
Learning analytics as an application of data science
In 2017, Gašević, Коvanović, and Joksimović proposed a consolidated model of learning analytics. The model posits that learning analytics is defined at the intersection of three disciplines: data science, theory, and design. Data science offers computational methods and techniques for data collection, pre-processing, analysis, and presentation. Theory is typically drawn from the literature in the learning sciences, education, psychology, sociology, and philosophy. The design dimension of the model includes: learning design, interaction design, and study design.
In 2015, Gašević, Dawson
Dawson may refer to:
People and fictional characters
*Dawson (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name
* Dawson (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name
Places Antarctica ...
, and Siemens argued that computational aspects of learning analytics need to be linked with the existing educational research in order for Learning Analytics to deliver its promise to understand and optimize learning.
Learning analytics versus educational data mining
Differentiating the fields of educational data mining (EDM) and learning analytics (LA) has been a concern of several researchers. George Siemens takes the position that educational data mining encompasses both learning analytics and academic analytics,[G. Siemens, D. Gasevic, C. Haythornthwaite, S. Dawson, S. B. Shum, R. Ferguson, E. Duval, K. Verbert, and R. S. J. D. Baker. Open Learning Analytics: an integrated & modularized platform. 2011.] the former of which is aimed at governments, funding agencies, and administrators instead of learners and faculty. Baepler and Murdoch define academic analytics as an area that "...combines select institutional data, statistical analysis, and predictive modeling to create intelligence upon which learners, instructors, or administrators can change academic behavior". They go on to attempt to disambiguate educational data mining from academic analytics based on whether the process is hypothesis driven or not, though Brooks[C. Brooks. A Data-Assisted Approach to Supporting Instructional Interventions in Technology Enhanced Learning Environments. PhD Dissertation. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada 2012.] questions whether this distinction exists in the literature. Brooks[ instead proposes that a better distinction between the EDM and LA communities is in the roots of where each community originated, with authorship at the EDM community being dominated by researchers coming from intelligent tutoring paradigms, and learning anaytics researchers being more focused on enterprise learning systems (e.g. learning content management systems).
Regardless of the differences between the LA and EDM communities, the two areas have significant overlap both in the objectives of investigators as well as in the methods and techniques that are used in the investigation. In the MS program offering in learning analytics at Teachers College, Columbia University, students are taught both EDM and LA methods.
]
Historical contributions
Learning Analytics, as a field, has multiple disciplinary roots. While the fields of artificial intelligence (AI), statistical analysis
Statistical inference is the process of using data analysis to infer properties of an underlying distribution of probability.Upton, G., Cook, I. (2008) ''Oxford Dictionary of Statistics'', OUP. . Inferential statistical analysis infers propertie ...
, machine learning
Machine learning (ML) is a field of inquiry devoted to understanding and building methods that 'learn', that is, methods that leverage data to improve performance on some set of tasks. It is seen as a part of artificial intelligence.
Machine ...
, and business intelligence
Business intelligence (BI) comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis and management of business information. Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical pr ...
offer an additional narrative, the main historical roots of analytics are the ones directly related to human interaction and the education system. More in particular, the history of Learning Analytics is tightly linked to the development of four Social Sciences
Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of society, societies and the Social relation, relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the o ...
' fields that have converged throughout time. These fields pursued, and still do, four goals:
# ''Definition of Learner'', in order to cover the need of defining and understanding a learner.
# ''Knowledge trace'', addressing how to trace or map the knowledge that occurs during the learning process.
# ''Learning efficiency and personalization
Personalization (broadly known as customization) consists of tailoring a service or a product to accommodate specific individuals, sometimes tied to groups or segments of individuals. A wide variety of organizations use personalization to improv ...
'', which refers to how to make learning more efficient and personal
Personal may refer to:
Aspects of persons' respective individualities
* Privacy
* Personality
* Personal, personal advertisement, variety of classified advertisement used to find romance or friendship
Companies
* Personal, Inc., a Washington, ...
by means of technology.
# ''Learner – content comparison'', in order to improve learning by comparing the learner's level of knowledge with the actual content that needs to master.[(')
A diversity of disciplines and research activities have influenced in these 4 aspects throughout the last decades, contributing to the gradual development of learning analytics. Some of most determinant disciplines are ]Social Network Analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
, User Modelling, Cognitive modelling A cognitive model is an approximation of one or more cognitive processes in humans or other animals for the purposes of comprehension and prediction. There are many types of cognitive models, and they can range from box-and-arrow diagrams to a set o ...
, Data Mining and E-Learning
Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as edutech, or edtech) is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning. When referred to with its abbreviation, edtech, it often refer ...
. The history of Learning Analytics can be understood by the rise and development of these fields.[
]
Social Network Analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory
In mathematics, graph theory is the study of '' graphs'', which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of '' vertices'' (also called ''nodes'' or ''points'') which are conn ...
. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ''ties'', ''edges'', or ''links'' (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Social network analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
is prominent in Sociology
Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation and ...
, and its development has had a key role in the emergence of Learning Analytics.
One of the first examples or attempts to provide a deeper understanding of interactions is by Austrian-American Sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld. In 1944, Lazarsfeld made the statement of "who talks to whom about what and to what effect". That statement forms what today is still the area of interest or the target within social network analysis, which tries to understand how people are connected and what insights can be derived as a result of their interactions, a core idea of Learning Analytics.[
Citation analysis
American linguist ]Eugene Garfield
Eugene Eli Garfield (September 16, 1925 – February 26, 2017) was an American linguist and businessman, one of the founders of bibliometrics and scientometrics. He helped to create ''Current Contents'', ''Science Citation Index'' (SCI), ''Jour ...
was an early pioneer in analytics in science. In 1955, Garfield led the first attempt to analyse the structure of science regarding how developments in science can be better understood by tracking the associations (citation
A citation is a reference to a source. More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of ...
s) between articles (how they reference one another, the importance of the resources that they include, citation frequency, etc). Through tracking citations, scientists can observe how research is disseminated and validated. This was the basic idea of what eventually became a "''page rank''", which in the early days of Google
Google LLC () is an American Multinational corporation, multinational technology company focusing on Search Engine, search engine technology, online advertising, cloud computing, software, computer software, quantum computing, e-commerce, ar ...
(beginning of the 21st century) was one of the key ways of understanding the structure of a field by looking at page connections and the importance of those connections. The algorithm PageRank
PageRank (PR) is an algorithm used by Google Search to rank web pages in their search engine results. It is named after both the term "web page" and co-founder Larry Page. PageRank is a way of measuring the importance of website pages. Accordi ...
-the first search algorithm used by Google- was based on this principle. American computer scientist
A computer scientist is a person who is trained in the academic study of computer science.
Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computation, as opposed to the hardware side on which computer engineers mainly focus ( ...
Larry Page
Lawrence Edward Page (born March 26, 1973) is an American business magnate, computer scientist and internet entrepreneur. He is best known for co-founding Google with Sergey Brin.
Page was the chief executive officer of Google from 1997 u ...
, Google's co-founder, defined PageRank as "''an approximation of the importance''" of a particular resource. Educationally, citation or link analysis is important for mapping knowledge domains.[
The essential idea behind these attempts is the realization that, as data increases, individuals, researchers or business analysts need to understand how to track the underlying patterns behind the data and how to gain insight from them. And this is also a core idea in Learning Analytics.][
Digitalization of Social network analysis
During the early 1970s, pushed by the rapid evolution in technology, ]Social network analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
transitioned into analysis of networks in digital settings.[
# ''Milgram's 6 degrees experiment''. In 1967, American social psychologist ]Stanley Milgram
Stanley Milgram (August 15, 1933 – December 20, 1984) was an American social psychologist, best known for his controversial experiments on obedience conducted in the 1960s during his professorship at Yale.Blass, T. (2004). ''The Man Who Shocke ...
and other researchers examined the average path length for social network
A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for ...
s of people in the United States, suggesting that human society is a small-world-type network characterized by short path-lengths.
# '' Weak ties''. American Sociologist Mark Granovetter
Mark Sanford Granovetter (; born October 20, 1943) is an American sociologist and professor at Stanford University. He is best known for his work in social network theory and in economic sociology, particularly his theory on the spread of inf ...
's work on the strength of what is known as weak ties; his 1973 article "The Strength of Weak Ties" is one of the most influential and most cited articles in Social Sciences
Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of society, societies and the Social relation, relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the o ...
.
# ''Networked individualism individualism represents the shift of the classical model of social arrangements formed around hierarchical bureaucracies or social groups that are tightly-knit, like households and work groups, to connected ''individuals'', using the means provide ...
''. Towards the end of the 20th century, Sociologist Barry Wellman
Barry Wellman (born 1942) is a Canadian-American sociologist and is the co-director of the Toronto-based international NetLab Network. His areas of research are community sociology, the Internet, human-computer interaction and social structur ...
's research extensively contributed the theory of social network analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
. In particular, Wellman observed and described the rise of "networked individualism individualism represents the shift of the classical model of social arrangements formed around hierarchical bureaucracies or social groups that are tightly-knit, like households and work groups, to connected ''individuals'', using the means provide ...
" – the transformation from group-based networks to individualized networks.
During the first decade of the century, Professor Caroline Haythornthwaite
Caroline Haythornthwaite is a professor emerita at Syracuse University School of Information Studies. She served as the School's director of the Library Science graduate program from July 2017 to June 2019. She previously served as Director and P ...
explored the impact of media type on the development of social ties, observing that human interactions can be analyzed to gain novel insight not from strong interactions
The strong interaction or strong force is a fundamental interaction that confines quarks into proton, neutron, and other hadron particles. The strong interaction also binds neutrons and protons to create atomic nuclei, where it is called the ...
(i.e. people that are strongly related to the subject) but, rather, from weak ties. This provides Learning Analytics with a central idea: apparently un-related data may hide crucial information. As an example of this phenomenon, an individual looking for a job will have a better chance of finding new information through weak connections rather than strong ones. (')
Her research also focused on the way that different types of media can impact the formation of networks. Her work highly contributed to the development of social network analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
as a field. Important ideas were inherited by Learning Analytics, such that a range of metrics and approaches can define the importance of a particular node, the value of information exchange, the way that clusters are connected to one another, structural gaps that might exist within those networks, etc.[
The application of social network analysis in digital learning settings has been pioneered by Professor ]Shane P. Dawson
Shane may refer to:
People
* Shane (actress) (born 1969), American pornographic actress
* Shane (New Zealand singer) (born 1946)
* iamnotshane (born 1995), formerly known as Shane, American singer
* Shane (name), a masculine given name and a ...
. He has developed a number of software tools, such as Social Networks Adapting Pedagogical Practice (SNAPP) for evaluating the networks that form in earning management systemswhen students engage in forum discussions.
User modelling
The main goal of user modelling is the customization and adaptation of systems to the user's specific needs, especially in their interaction with computing systems. The importance of computers being able to respond individually to into people was starting to be understood in the decade of 1970s. Dr Elaine Rich in 1979 predicted that "computers are going to treat their users as individuals with distinct personalities, goals, and so forth". This is a central idea not only educationally but also in general web use activity, in which personalization
Personalization (broadly known as customization) consists of tailoring a service or a product to accommodate specific individuals, sometimes tied to groups or segments of individuals. A wide variety of organizations use personalization to improv ...
is an important goal.[
User modelling has become important in research in human-computer interactions as it helps researchers to design better systems by understanding how users interact with software. Recognizing unique traits, goals, and motivations of individuals remains an important activity in learning analytics.][
Personalization and adaptation of learning content is an important present and future direction of ]learning sciences
Learning sciences (LS) is an interdisciplinary field that works to further scientific, humanistic, and critical theoretical understanding of learning as well as to engage in the design and implementation of learning innovations, and the improve ...
, and its history within education has contributed to the development of learning analytics.Hypermedia
Hypermedia, an extension of the term hypertext, is a nonlinear medium of information that includes graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks. This designation contrasts with the broader term ''multimedia'', which may include non-interact ...
is a nonlinear medium of information that includes graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlink
In computing, a hyperlink, or simply a link, is a digital reference to data that the user can follow or be guided by clicking or tapping. A hyperlink points to a whole document or to a specific element within a document. Hypertext is text ...
s. The term was first used in a 1965 article written by American Sociologist Ted Nelson. Adaptive hypermedia Adaptive hypermedia (AH) uses hypermedia which is adaptive according to a ''user model''. In contrast to linear media, where all users are offered a standard series of hyperlinks, adaptive hypermedia (AH) tailors what the user is offered based on a ...
builds on user modelling by increasing personalization of content and interaction. In particular, adaptive hypermedia systems build a model of the goals, preferences and knowledge of each user, in order to adapt to the needs of that user. From the end of the 20th century onwards, the field grew rapidly, mainly due to that the internet
The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a ''internetworking, network of networks'' that consists ...
boosted research into adaptivity and, secondly, the accumulation and consolidation of research experience in the field. In turn, Learning Analytics has been influenced by this strong development.
Education/cognitive modelling
Education/cognitive modelling has been applied to tracing how learners develop knowledge. Since the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, computers have been used in education as learning tools for decades. In 1989, Hugh Burns
Hugh Burns (born 13 December 1965) is a Scottish former professional football player who is best known for his time with Rangers and Kilmarnock.
Club career
Burns began his career with Cambuslang Rangers before joining Rangers. Whilst at I ...
argued for the adoption and development of intelligent tutor systems that ultimately would pass three levels of "intelligence": domain knowledge
Domain knowledge is knowledge of a specific, specialized discipline or field, in contrast to general (or domain-independent) knowledge. The term is often used in reference to a more general discipline—for example, in describing a software eng ...
, learner knowledge evaluation, and pedagogical
Pedagogy (), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as ...
intervention. During the 21st century, these three levels have remained relevant for researchers and educators.
In the decade of 1990s, the academic activity around cognitive models focused on attempting to develop systems that possess a computational model capable of solving the problems that are given to students in the ways students are expected to solve the problems. Cognitive modelling has contributed to the rise in popularity of intelligent or cognitive tutors. Once cognitive processes can be modelled, software (tutors) can be developed to support learners in the learning process. The research base on this field became, eventually, significantly relevant for learning analytics during the 21st century.[
]
Epistemic Frame Theory
While big data analytics has been more and more widely applied in education, Wise and Shaffer addressed the importance of theory-based approach in the analysis. Epistemic Frame Theory conceptualized the "ways of thinking, acting, and being in the world" in a collaborative learning environment. Specifically, the framework is based on the context of Community of Practice
A community of practice (CoP) is a group of people who "share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly". The concept was first proposed by cognitive anthropologist Jean Lave and educat ...
(CoP), which is a group of learners, with common goals, standards and prior knowledge and skills, to solve a complex problem. Due to the essence of CoP, it is important to study the connections between elements (learners, knowledge, concepts, skills and so on). To identify the connections, the co-occurrences of elements in learners' data are identified and analyzed.
Shaffer and Ruis pointed out the concept of closing the interpretive loop, by emphasizing the transparency and validation of model, interpretation and the original data. The loop can be closed by a good theoretical sound analytics approaches
Epistemic Network Analysis
Other contributions
In a discussion of the history of analytics, Adam Cooper highlights a number of communities from which learning analytics has drawn techniques, mainly during the first decades of the 21st century, including:[Cooper, Adam. A Brief History of Analytics A Briefing Paper. CETIS Analytics Series. JISC CETIS, November 2012]
http://publications.cetis.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Analytics-Brief-History-Vol-1-No9.pdf
# Statistics, which are a well established means to address hypothesis testing.
# Business intelligence
Business intelligence (BI) comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis and management of business information. Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical pr ...
, which has similarities with learning analytics, although it has historically been targeted at making the production of reports more efficient through enabling data access and summarising performance indicators.
# Web analytics
Web analytics is the measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of web data to understand and optimize web usage. Web analytics is not just a process for measuring web traffic but can be used as a tool for business and market research a ...
, tools such as Google Analytics
Google Analytics is a web analytics service offered by Google that tracks and reports website traffic, currently as a platform inside the Google Marketing Platform brand. Google launched the service in November 2005 after acquiring Urchin.
As o ...
report on web page visits and references to websites, brands and other key terms across the internet. The more "fine grain" of these techniques can be adopted in learning analytics for the exploration of student trajectories through learning resources (courses, materials, etc.).
# Operational research
Operations research ( en-GB, operational research) (U.S. Air Force Specialty Code: Operations Analysis), often shortened to the initialism OR, is a discipline that deals with the development and application of analytical methods to improve decis ...
, which aims at highlighting design optimisation for maximising objectives through the use of mathematical models and statistical methods. Such techniques are implicated in learning analytics which seek to create models of real world behaviour for practical application.
# Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machine
A machine is a physical system using Power (physics), power to apply Force, forces and control Motion, moveme ...
methods (combined with machine learning
Machine learning (ML) is a field of inquiry devoted to understanding and building methods that 'learn', that is, methods that leverage data to improve performance on some set of tasks. It is seen as a part of artificial intelligence.
Machine ...
techniques built on data mining) are capable of detecting patterns in data. In learning analytics such techniques can be used for intelligent tutoring systems, classification of students in more dynamic ways than simple demographic factors, and resources such as "suggested course" systems modelled on collaborative filtering
Collaborative filtering (CF) is a technique used by recommender systems.Francesco Ricci and Lior Rokach and Bracha ShapiraIntroduction to Recommender Systems Handbook Recommender Systems Handbook, Springer, 2011, pp. 1-35 Collaborative filtering ...
techniques.
# Information visualization
Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random, ...
, which is an important step in many analytics for sensemaking
Sensemaking or sense-making is the process by which people give meaning to their collective experiences. It has been defined as "the ongoing retrospective development of plausible images that rationalize what people are doing" ( Weick, Sutcliffe, ...
around the data provided, and is used across most techniques (including those above).[
]
Learning analytics programs
The first graduate program focused specifically on learning analytics was created by Ryan S. Baker
Ryan S. Baker (born 1977 in Naperville, Illinois) is professor of education and computer science at the University of Pennsylvania, and also directs the Penn Center for Learning Analytics. He is known for his role in establishing the educational ...
and launched in the Fall 2015 semester at Teachers College, Columbia University
Columbia University (also known as Columbia, and officially as Columbia University in the City of New York) is a private research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manha ...
. The program description states that''"(...)data about learning and learners are being generated today on an unprecedented scale. The fields of learning analytics (LA) and educational data mining (EDM) have emerged with the aim of transforming this data into new insights that can benefit students, teachers, and administrators. As one of world's leading teaching and research institutions in education, psychology, and health, we are proud to offer an innovative graduate curriculum dedicated to improving education through technology and data analysis
Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, en ...
."''
Masters programs are now offered at several other universities as well, including the University of Texas at Arlington, the University of Wisconsin, and the University of Pennsylvania.
Analytic methods
Methods for learning analytics include:
* Content analysis, particularly of resources which students create (such as essays).
* Discourse analytics, which aims to capture meaningful data on student interactions which (unlike social network analytics) aims to explore the properties of the language used, as opposed to just the network of interactions, or forum-post counts, etc.
* Social learning analytics, which is aimed at exploring the role of social interaction in learning, the importance of learning networks, discourse used to sensemake, etc.
* Disposition analytics, which seeks to capture data regarding student's dispositions to their own learning, and the relationship of these to their learning.[Buckingham Shum, S. and Deakin Crick, R., Learning Dispositions and Transferable Competencies: Pedagogy, Modelling and Learning Analytics. In: Proc. 2nd International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge (Vancouver, 29 Apr-2 May 2012). ACM: New York. pp.92-101. Eprint: http://oro.open.ac.uk/32823] For example, "curious" learners may be more inclined to ask questions, and this data can be captured and analysed for learning analytics.
*Epistemic Network Analysis, which is an analytics technique that models the co-occurrence of different concepts and elements in the learning process. For example, the online discourse data can be segmented as turn of talk. By coding students' different behaviors of collaborative learning, we could apply ENA to identify and quantify the co-occurrence of different behaviors for any individual in the group.
Applications
Learning Applications can be and has been applied in a noticeable number of contexts.
General purposes
Analytics have been used for:
* Prediction
A prediction (Latin ''præ-'', "before," and ''dicere'', "to say"), or forecast, is a statement about a future event or data. They are often, but not always, based upon experience or knowledge. There is no universal agreement about the exac ...
purposes, for example to identify "at risk" students in terms of drop out or course failure.
* Personalization
Personalization (broadly known as customization) consists of tailoring a service or a product to accommodate specific individuals, sometimes tied to groups or segments of individuals. A wide variety of organizations use personalization to improv ...
& adaptation, to provide students with tailored learning pathways, or assessment materials.
* Intervention purposes, providing educators with information to intervene to support students.
* Information visualization
Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random, ...
, typically in the form of so-called learning dashboards which provide overview learning data through data visualisation tools.
Benefits for stakeholders
There is a broad awareness of analytics across educational institutions for various stakeholders,[ but that the way learning analytics is defined and implemented may vary, including:][
# for individual learners to reflect on their achievements and patterns of behaviour in relation to others. Particularly, the following areas can be set out for measuring, monitoring, analyzing and changing to optimize student performance:]
## Monitoring individual student performance
## Disaggregating student performance by selected characteristics such as major, year of study, ethnicity, etc.
## Identifying outliers for early intervention
## Predicting potential so that all students achieve optimally
## Preventing attrition from a course or program
## Identifying and developing effective instructional techniques
## Analyzing standard assessment techniques and instruments (i.e. departmental and licensing exams)
## Testing and evaluation of curricula.[
# as predictors of students requiring extra support and attention;
# to help teachers and support staff plan supporting interventions with individuals and groups;
# for functional groups such as course teams seeking to improve current courses or develop new curriculum offerings; and
# for institutional administrators taking decisions on matters such as marketing and recruitment or efficiency and effectiveness measures.][
Some motivations and implementations of analytics may come into conflict with others, for example highlighting potential conflict between analytics for individual learners and organisational stakeholders.][
]
Software
Much of the software that is currently used for learning analytics duplicates functionality of web analytics software, but applies it to learner interactions with content. Social network analysis tools are commonly used to map social connections and discussions. Some examples of learning analytics software tools include:
* BEESTAR INSIGHT: a real-time system that automatically collects student engagement and attendance, and provides analytics tools and dashboards for students, teachers and management
* LOCO-Analyst: a context-aware learning tool for analytics of learning processes taking place in a web-based learning environment
* SAM: a Student Activity Monitor intended for personal learning environments
* SNAPP: a learning analytics tool that visualizes the network of interactions resulting from discussion forum posts and replies
* Solutionpath StREAM: A leading UK based real-time system that leverage predictive models to determine all facets of student engagement using structured and unstructured sources for all institutional roles
* Student Success System: a predictive learning analytics tool that predicts student performance and plots learners into risk quadrants based upon engagement and performance predictions, and provides indicators to develop understanding as to why a learner is not on track through visualizations such as the network of interactions resulting from social engagement (e.g. discussion posts and replies), performance on assessments, engagement with content, and other indicators
Epistemic Network Analysis (ENA) web tool
An interactive online tool that allow researchers to upload the coded dataset and create the model by specifying units, conversations and codes. Useful functions within the online tool includes mean rotation for comparison between two groups, specifying the sliding window size for connection accumulation, weighed or unweighted models, and parametric and non-parametric statistical testings with suggested write-up and so on. The web tool is stable and open source.
Ethics and privacy
The ethics of data collection, analytics, reporting and accountability has been raised as a potential concern for learning analytics,[ with concerns raised regarding:
* Data ownership
* Communications around the scope and role of learning analytics
* The necessary role of human feedback and error-correction in learning analytics systems
* Data sharing between systems, organisations, and stakeholders
* Trust in data clients
As Kay, Kom and Oppenheim point out, the range of data is wide, potentially derived from:][Kay, David, Naomi Kom, and Charles Oppenheim. Legal, Risk and Ethical Aspects of Analytics in Higher Education. Analytics Series. Accessed January 3, 2013. ]
* Recorded activity: student records, attendance, assignments, researcher information (CRIS)
* Systems interactions: VLE, library / repository search, card transactions
* Feedback mechanisms: surveys, customer care
* External systems that offer reliable identification such as sector and shared services and social networks
Thus the legal and ethical situation is challenging and different from country to country, raising implications for:[
* Variety of data: principles for collection, retention and exploitation
* Education mission: underlying issues of learning management, including social and performance engineering
* Motivation for development of analytics: mutuality, a combination of corporate, individual and general good
* Customer expectation: effective business practice, social data expectations, cultural considerations of a global customer base.
* Obligation to act: duty of care arising from knowledge and the consequent challenges of student and employee performance management
In some prominent cases like the inBloom disaster, even full functional systems have been shut down due to lack of trust in the data collection by governments, stakeholders and civil rights groups. Since then, the learning analytics community has extensively studied legal conditions in a series of experts workshops on "Ethics & Privacy 4 Learning Analytics" that constitute the use of trusted learning analytics. Drachsler & Greller released an 8-point checklist named DELICATE that is based on the intensive studies in this area to demystify the ethics and privacy discussions around learning analytics.
# D-etermination: Decide on the purpose of learning analytics for your institution.
# E-xplain: Define the scope of data collection and usage.
# L-egitimate: Explain how you operate within the legal frameworks, refer to the essential legislation.
# I-nvolve: Talk to stakeholders and give assurances about the data distribution and use.
# C-onsent: Seek consent through clear consent questions.
# A-nonymise: De-identify individuals as much as possible
# T-echnical aspects: Monitor who has access to data, especially in areas with high staff turn-over.
# E-xternal partners: Make sure externals provide highest data security standards
It shows ways to design and provide privacy conform learning analytics that can benefit all stakeholders. The full DELICATE checklist is publicly available.
Privacy management practices of students have shown discrepancies between one's privacy beliefs and one's privacy related actions.] Learning analytic systems can have default settings that allow data collection of students if they do not choose to opt-out.[ Some online education systems such as edX or ]Coursera
Coursera Inc. () is a U.S.-based massive open online course provider founded in 2012 by Stanford University computer science professors Andrew Ng and Daphne Koller. Coursera works with universities and other organizations to offer online cour ...
do not offer a choice to opt-out of data collection.[ In order for certain learning analytics to function properly, these systems utilize cookies to collect data.][
]
Open learning analytics
In 2012, a systematic overview on learning analytics and its key concepts was provided by Professor Mohamed Chatti
Muhammad was an Islamic prophet and a religious and political leader who preached and established Islam.
Muhammad and variations may also refer to:
*Muhammad (name), a given name and surname, and list of people with the name and its variations
...
and colleagues through a reference model based on four dimensions, namely:
* data, environments, context (''what?''),
* stakeholders (''who?''),
* objectives (''why?''), and
* methods (''how?'').[Mohamed Amine Chatti, Anna Lea Dyckhoff, Ulrik Schroeder and Hendrik Thüs (2012). A reference model for learning analytics. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning (IJTEL), 4(5/6), pp. 318-331.][Chatti, M. A., Lukarov, V., Thüs, H., Muslim, A., Yousef, A. M. F., Wahid, U., Greven, C., Chakrabarti, A., Schroeder, U. (2014). Learning Analytics: Challenges and Future Research Directions. eleed, Iss. 10. http://eleed.campussource.de/archive/10/4035]
Chatti, Muslim and Schroeder note that the aim of open learning analytics (OLA) is to improve learning effectiveness in lifelong learning environments. The authors refer to OLA as an ongoing analytics process that encompasses diversity at all four dimensions of the learning analytics reference model.[
]
See also
* Student Engagement
* Analytics
Analytics is the systematic computational analysis of data or statistics. It is used for the discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It also entails applying data patterns toward effective decision-making. It ...
* Big data
* Data Mining
* Educational data mining
* Educational technology
Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as edutech, or edtech) is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning. When referred to with its abbreviation, edtech, it often refer ...
* Machine learning
Machine learning (ML) is a field of inquiry devoted to understanding and building methods that 'learn', that is, methods that leverage data to improve performance on some set of tasks. It is seen as a part of artificial intelligence.
Machine ...
* Pattern recognition
Pattern recognition is the automated recognition of patterns and regularities in data. It has applications in statistical data analysis, signal processing, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, computer graphic ...
* Predictive analytics
Predictive analytics encompasses a variety of statistical techniques from data mining, predictive modeling, and machine learning that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future or otherwise unknown events.
In busin ...
* Social network analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
* Text analytics
Text mining, also referred to as ''text data mining'', similar to text analytics, is the process of deriving high-quality information from text. It involves "the discovery by computer of new, previously unknown information, by automatically extrac ...
* Web analytics
Web analytics is the measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of web data to understand and optimize web usage. Web analytics is not just a process for measuring web traffic but can be used as a tool for business and market research a ...
Further reading
For general audience introductions, see:
* The Educause learning initiative briefing (2011)
* The Educause review on learning analytics (2011)
* The UNESCO learning analytics policy brief (2012)
* The NMC Horizon Report: 2016 Higher Education Edition
References
{{Reflist
External links
Society for Learning Analytics Research (SoLAR)
– a research network for learning analytics
US Department of Education report on Learning Analytics
2012
Learning Analytics Google Group
with discussions from researchers and individuals interested in the topic.
International Conference Learning Analytics & Knowledge
Learning Analytics and Educational Data Mining conferences and people
Next Gen Learning definition
Microsoft Education Analytics
with information on how to use data to support improved educational outcomes.
Educational Data mining
Educause resources on learning analytics
Learning analytics infographic
New Media Consortium (NMC)
Types of analytics
Learning
Statistics of education
Educational technology