Kurdish separatism in Iran
or the Kurdish–Iranian conflict is an ongoing
separatist dispute between the
Kurdish opposition in Western
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
and the governments of Iran
since the emergence of
Reza Shah in 1918.
The earliest Kurdish separatist activities in modern times refer to tribal revolts in today's
West Azerbaijan Province
West Azerbaijan province () is one of the 31 provinces of Iran, whose capital and largest city is Urmia.
It is in the northwest of the country, bordered by Turkey ( Ağrı, Hakkâri, Iğdır and Van Provinces), Iraq ( Erbil and Sula ...
of the
Imperial State of Iran, which began between the two
World Wars – the largest of these were led by
Simko Shikak
Ismail Agha Shikak (, ), also known as Simko (, ; 1887–1930), was a Kurds, Kurdish chieftain of the Shekak (tribe), Shekak tribe. He was a nationalist warlord who controlled significant land and led thousands of Kurdish rebels who defeated th ...
, Jafar Sultan and
Hama Rashid revolts. Many however, put the starting point of the organized Kurdish political-nationalist separatism at 1943,
when Komala (shortly after the
Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran) began their political activities in Iran with the aim to gain partial or complete autonomy in the Kurdish regions. Transformation from tribal to Kurdish political struggle in Iran took place in the aftermath of World War II, with the KDPI establishing the
Republic of Mahabad during the
1946 Iran crisis.
The
USSR
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
-supported attempt to establish a Kurdish state in Western Iran failed.
More than a decade later, peripheral tribal
uprisings launched with KDPI support throughout 1966–7. In the most violent episode of the conflict, more than 30,000 Kurds died in the
1979 rebellion and the consequent
KDPI insurgency.
Though the KDPI's armed struggle ended in late 1996, another Kurdish armed organization emerged in Iran by the early 2000s. The ongoing
Iran-PJAK conflict started in 2004.
Though Iran has not been as brutal against its own
Kurdish population as its neighbouring countries, it has always staunchly opposed Kurdish separatism.
Background
History
Tribalism and early nationalism
Simko's first revolt (1918–1922)
The
Simko Shikak revolt was an armed
Ottoman-backed
tribal Kurdish uprising against the
Qajar dynasty
The Qajar family (; 1789–1925) was an Iranian royal family founded by Mohammad Khan (), a member of the Qoyunlu clan of the Turkoman-descended Qajar tribe. The dynasty's effective rule in Iran ended in 1925 when Iran's '' Majlis'', conven ...
of
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
(
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
) from 1918 to 1922, led by
Kurdish chieftain
Simko Shikak
Ismail Agha Shikak (, ), also known as Simko (, ; 1887–1930), was a Kurds, Kurdish chieftain of the Shekak (tribe), Shekak tribe. He was a nationalist warlord who controlled significant land and led thousands of Kurdish rebels who defeated th ...
. This tribal rebellion is sometimes regarded as the first major bid for establishing an
independent Kurdish state in
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
,
but scholars view the revolt as an attempt by a powerful tribal chief to establish his personal authority vis-à-vis the central government throughout the
region
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and ...
.
While elements of
Kurdish nationalism were present in this movement, historians agree these were hardly articulate enough to justify a claim that recognition of Kurdish identity was a major issue in Simko's movement, and he had to rely heavily on conventional tribal motives.
It lacked any sort of administrative organization and Simko was primarily interested in
plunder.
Government
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...
forces and non-Kurds were not the only ones to suffer in the attacks, as the
Kurdish population was also robbed and assaulted.
Simko's men didn't appear to have felt any sense of unity or solidarity with fellow Kurds.
Historian
Ervand Abrahamian describes Simko as "notorious" for
massacring thousands of Assyrians and "harassing" democrats. Still, some Kurds today revere Simko as a hero of the independence movement.
1926 Simko rebellion in Persia
By 1926, Simko had regained control of his tribe and begun another outright rebellion against the state.
[Smith B. ''Land and Rebellion: Kurdish Separatism in Comparative Perspective.']
/ref> When the army engaged him, half of his troops defected to the tribe's previous leader and Simqu fled to Iraq.
Jafar Sultan revolt
Jafar Sultan of Hewraman region took control of the region between Marivan and north of Halabja and remained independent until 1925. After four years under Persian rule, the tribal leader revolted in 1929, but was effectively crushed.
Hama Rashid revolt
Hama Rashid revolt refers to a tribal uprising in Pahlavi Iran during the Second World War
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
following the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.[Jwaideh, W. ''The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Development.'':p.245.] The tribal revolt erupted in the general atmosphere of anarchy throughout Iran, with its main faction led by Muhammed Rashid. The first stage of the revolt revolt lasted from late 1941 till April 1942 and the second stage began in 1944, but ultimately resulted in Rashid's defeat. It has been considered as one of the leading factors of the establishment of the Kurdish political independence movement.
Political separatism
Mahabad crisis
The danger of fragmentation in modern Iran became evident shortly after the Second World War
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
when the Soviet Union
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
refused to relinquish occupied northwestern Iranian territory. Iran crisis of 1946 included a separatist attempt by the KDP-I and communist
Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, di ...
groups to establish a Soviet
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
puppet government, and declare the Republic of Mahabad in Iranian Kurdistan (today's southern part of West Azerbaijan Province
West Azerbaijan province () is one of the 31 provinces of Iran, whose capital and largest city is Urmia.
It is in the northwest of the country, bordered by Turkey ( Ağrı, Hakkâri, Iğdır and Van Provinces), Iraq ( Erbil and Sula ...
). It arose along with another Soviet puppet state known as the Azerbaijan People's Government. The state itself encompassed a very small territory, only including Mahabad and its adjacent cities. This state couldn't incorporate southern Iranian Kurdistan as it fell inside the Anglo-American zone and also failed to attract the tribes outside Mahabad to the nationalist cause. As a result, when the Soviets withdrew from Iran in December 1946, government forces were able to enter Mahabad unopposed. At least 1,000 died during the crisis.
Iran crisis of 1946 included an attempt of the KDPI to establish an independent Kurdish-dominated Republic of Mahabad in Iranian Kurdistan. Afterwards, Marxist
Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflic ...
insurgencies led by the KDP-I and Komala continued for decades, but these two organization never advocated for a separate Kurdish state or greater Kurdistan as did the PKK in Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
.
1967 Kurdish revolt
During the mid-1960s, a series of Kurdish tribal disturbances erupted in Western Iran
Western Iran consists of Armenian Highlands, northern Zagros and the rich agricultural area of the Khuzestan Plain in the south.
It includes the provinces of Kordestan, Kermanshah Province, Kermanshah, Ilam Province, Ilam, Lorestan, and Hamadan ...
as they were fed up by the revival of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran (KDP-I). In 1967-8, Iranian government troops suppressed a Kurdish revolt in Western Iran, consolidating the previous Kurdish uprisings in the Mahabad-Urumiya region.
1979 rebellion
The 1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran was an insurrection led by the KDPI and Komala in Iranian Kurdistan, which eventually became the most serious rebellion against the new Iranian regime. The rebellion ended in December 1982, with 10,000 killed and 200,000 displaced.
KDPI insurgency
Insurrection by the KDPI took place in Iranian Kurdistan throughout the early and mid-90s, fueled by the assassination of its leader
Leadership, is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or organization to "", influence, or guide other individuals, teams, or organizations.
"Leadership" is a contested term. Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the co ...
in exile in July 1989. The KDPI insurrection ended in 1996, following a successful Iranian campaign of targeted assassinations of KDPI leaders and crackdown on its support bases in Western Iran. In 1996, the KDPI announced a unilateral ceasefire, and has since acted at a low profile before renewing clashes in 2015.
PJAK insurrection
Iran–PJAK conflict is an ongoing rebellion of PJAK in which hundreds of Kurdish militants and Iranian forces as well as civilians have died, officially beginning from April 2004. PJAK is based in the border area with Iraqi Kurdistan
Iraqi Kurdistan or Southern Kurdistan () refers to the Kurds, Kurdish-populated part of northern Iraq. It is considered one of the four parts of Greater Kurdistan in West Asia, which also includes parts of southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdist ...
and is affiliated with the Marxist PKK from Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
, though PJAK themselves tend to neglect this alleged relation. Although sometimes described as an organization demanding human rights for Kurds in Iran, it is regarded as a separatist organization by Iranian media and various Western analysts. The PJAK goal is an establishment of Kurdish autonomy and according to Habeeb, they do not intend to pose any serious threat to the regime of the Islamic Republic.
In one of the first actions of the Obama administration, PJAK was declared a " terrorist organization". PJAK and Iranian government agreed on a ceasefire deal following the 2011 Iranian offensive on PJAK bases. After the ceasefire agreement, a number of clashes between the PJAK and the IRGC took place in 2012, and by mid-2013, the fighting resumed in sporadic incidents, escalating in 2016.
Renewed tensions 2014–present
Escalation and unrest
In January 2014, Iranian forces killed a KDPI party member while he was disseminating leaflets.
In September 2014, the KDPI engaged Iranian security for the first time in many years, killing at least 6 Iranian soldiers. It was unclear whether this was a result of change of policy by the Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan (which avoided violence since 1996) or an isolated sequence of incidents.
In May 2015, a suspected Iranian attack (allegedly disguised as PKK fighters) on PJAK forces on the Iran–Iraqi Kurdistan border resulted in 6 killed—2 KDPI and 4 PKK (or allegedly Iranian agents).
On 7 May 2015, ethnic Kurds rioted in Mahabad, Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
, following the unexplained death of Farinaz Khosravani on 4 May 2015, a 25-year-old Kurdish hotel chambermaid. Unrest and violence spread to other Kurdish cities in Iran, such as Sardasht, where police clashed with hundreds of protesters on 9 May 2015, where one protestor was reportedly killed. Soran Khedri, a former PJAK official, stated that it had the PJAK had attacked an Iranian checkpoint, killing two Iranian personnel. According to ARA sources, as of 11 May, the death toll rose to 6 protesters killed. The incidents prompted harsh responses from other Kurdish opposition parties, including the Kurdistan Freedom Party and the PDKI.
In June 2015, a KDPI attack on the Revolutionary Guard forces reportedly left 6 people dead.
Low-level insurgency (2016–present)
Military clashes in West Iran refers to the ongoing military clashes between Kurdish insurgent party Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan (PDKI) and the Iranian Revolutionary Guards, which began in April 2016. The Kurdistan Freedom Party (PAK) and Komalah expressed their support to the Kurdish cause of PDKI as well, with both clashing with Iranian security forces in 2016 and 2017 respectively. In parallel, the leftist Iranian Kurdish rebel group PJAK resumed military activities against Iran in 2016, following a long period of stalemate.
The 2016 clashes came following a background of what the PDKI described as "a growing sense of discontent and alienation in Rojhelat". The commander of the PAK military wing described their engagement and declaration of hostilities against the Iranian government were due to the fact that "the situation in eastern Kurdistan ( Iranian Kurdistan) has become unbearable, especially with the daily arbitrary executions of Kurds n Iran.
Iran has periodically launched strikes against the KDPI and other Iranian Kurdish dissident groups based in the frontier of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. In March 2023, Iraqi Prime Minister Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani, who came to power via a coalition of Iranian-backed parties, signed a border security agreement with Iran to tighten up the frontier between the two countries. On 28 August, Iraq agreed to disarm and relocate these groups to camps near Mosul
Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
by 19 September. However, according to the New Arab, these groups have not been disarmed, nor does Iraq seem to have the capability to do so.
See also
* Kurds in Iran
* Iranian Kurdistan
* Kurdish people
Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...
* KDPI–Komala conflict
* List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
* Kurdish–Turkish conflict
* Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
* Kurdish–Syrian conflict
* A Modern History of the Kurds by David McDowall
References
External links
PJAK website
(in Persian, Sorani
Central Kurdish, also known as Sorani Kurdish, is a Kurdish dialect or a language spoken in Iraq, mainly in Iraqi Kurdistan, as well as the provinces of Kurdistan, Kermanshah, and West Azerbaijan in western Iran. Central Kurdish is one of the ...
and English)
Extract from article about Kurdish Iranian militants
28 June 2006.
{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts
History of the Kurdish people
Rebellions in Iran
Kurdish rebellions
Kurdistan independence movement
History of West Azerbaijan province
Wars involving Iran
Conflicts in 2022