Kumbh Melas

Kumbh Mela (, ; ) is an important Hindu pilgrimage, celebrated approximately every 6 or 12 years, correlated with the partial or full revolution of Jupiter. It is the largest peaceful gathering of people in the world.

A ritual dip in the waters marks the festival. It is also a celebration of community commerce with numerous fairs, education, religious discourses by saints, mass gatherings of monks, and entertainment., Quote: "The special power of the Kumbha Mela is often said to be due in part to the presence of large numbers of Hindu monks, and many pilgrims seek the darsan (Skt., darsana; auspicious mutual sight) of these holy men. Others listen to religious discourses, participate in devotional singing, engage Brahman priests for personal rituals, organise mass feedings of monks or the poor, or merely enjoy the spectacle. Amid this diversity of activities, the ritual bath at the conjunction of time and place is the central event of the Kumbha Mela." The seekers believe that bathing in these rivers is a means to prāyaścitta (atonement, penance, restorative action) for past mistakes, and that it cleanses them of their sins.

In many parts of India, similar but smaller community pilgrimage and bathing festivals are called the Magha Mela, Makar Mela or equivalent. Other places where the Magha-Mela or Makar-Mela bathing pilgrimage and fairs have been called Kumbh Mela include Kurukshetra,1988
Town Survey Report: Haryana, Thanesar, District Kurukshetra
page 137-. Rajim, Mahamaham (Tamil Nadu), Sonipat, and Panauti (Nepal). For example, in Tamil Nadu, the Magha Mela with water-dip ritual is a festival of antiquity, and this festival is held at the Mahamaham tank (near Kaveri river) every 12 years at Kumbakonam, attracting millions of Hindus.

Before 1858, the name "Kumbh" was applied only to the 12th occurrence of an annual mela in Haridwar during April or May. In Allahabad (now Prayagraj), there was an annual ''Magh Mela'' in January or February that had found mention in Hindu texts, including Tulsidas's ''Ramcharitmanas''. The Haridwar mela had been riven by violence, especially by armed Akhara groups. In 1796, during East India Company rule in India, the violence in Haridwar's kumbh had taken 500 lives and a British armed unit with cannon had to be called in to stem it. In 1858, after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 had been suppressed and the British Raj instituted, Allahabad had become the capital of North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Uncertain about their place in the new political order, the ''Pragwal''s, or members of the traditional priest castes at Allahabad's ''sangam'' sought to have some latitude for their profession and proposed the idea of an organised pilgrimage with British surveillance. The British came to accept this in part because of lingering pre-1857 notions of their patronising an idealised Hinduism. The first Kumbh Mela in Allahabad was organised in 1870 with British supervision. By 1870, an adequate beginning had been made in laying a train network in India, which made travel over longer distances easier.

The weeks over which the festival is observed cycle at each site approximately once every 12 years based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar and the relative astrological positions of Jupiter, the sun and the moon. The difference between Prayag and Haridwar festivals is about 6 years, and both feature a Maha (major) and Ardha (half) Kumbh Melas. The exact years – particularly for the Kumbh Melas at Ujjain and Nashik – have been a subject of dispute in the 20th century. The Nashik and Ujjain festivals have been celebrated in the same year or one year apart, typically about 3 years after the Prayagraj Kumbh Mela.

The Kumbh Melas have three dates around which the significant majority of pilgrims participate, while the festival itself lasts between one and three months around these dates. Each festival attracts millions, with the largest gathering at the Prayag Kumbh Mela and the second largest at Haridwar. According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and Indian authorities, more than 200 million Hindus gathered for the Kumbh Mela in 2019, including 50 million on the festival's most crowded day. The festival is one of the largest peaceful gatherings in the world, and considered as the "world's largest congregation of religious pilgrims". It has been inscribed on the UNESCO's Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.Kumbh Mela on UNESCO's list of intangibl
, Economic Times, 7 December 2017. The festival is observed over many days, with the day of Amavasya attracting the largest number on a single day. According to official figures, the largest one-day attendance at the Kumbh Mela was 30 million on 10 February 2013, and 50 million on 4 February 2019.

Etymology and nomenclature

The ''Kumbha'' in Kumbha Mela literally means "pitcher, jar, pot" in Sanskrit. It is found in the Vedic texts, in this sense, often in the context of holding water or in mythical legends about the nectar of immortality. The word Kumbha or its derivatives are found in the ''Rigveda'' (1500–1200 BCE), for example, in verse 10.89.7; verse 19.16 of the ''Yajurveda'', verse 6.3 of ''Samaveda'', verse 19.53.3 of the ''Atharvaveda'', and other Vedic and post-Vedic ancient Sanskrit literature. In astrological texts, the term also refers to the zodiac sign of Aquarius. The astrological etymology dates to late 1st-millennium CE.

The word ''mela'' means "unite, join, meet, move together, assembly, junction" in Sanskrit, particularly in the context of fairs, and community celebrations. This word too is found in the ''Rigveda'' and other ancient Hindu texts. Thus, Kumbh Mela means an "assembly, meet, union" around "water or nectar of immortality".

Historical origins

Many Hindus believe that the Kumbh Mela originated in times immemorial and is attested in the Hindu Puranas about Samudra Manthana (''lit.'' churning of the ocean) found in the Puranas. Historians, in contrast, reject these claims as none of the ancient or medieval era texts that mention the Samudra Manthana legend ever link it to a "mela" or festival. According to Giorgio Bonazzoli, a scholar of Sanskrit Puranas, these are anachronistic explanations, an adaptation of early legends to a later practice by a "small circle of adherents" who have sought the roots of a highly popular pilgrimage and festival.

Hindu mythology describes the creation of a "pot of amrita (nectar of immortality)" after the forces of good and evil churn the ocean of creation. The gods and demons fight over this pot, the "kumbha", of nectar in order to gain immortality. In a later day extension to the legend, the pot is spilt at four places, and that is the origin of the four Kumbha Melas. The story varies, with some stating Vishnu as Mohini avatar, others stating Dhanavantari or Garuda or Indra spilling the pot. This "spilling" and associated Kumbh Mela story is not found in the earliest mentions of the original legend of Samudra Manthana (churning of the ocean) such as the Vedic era texts (pre-500 BCE), or the earliest of the ''Puranas'' (3rd to 10th-century CE).

While the ''Kumbha Mela'' phrase is not found in the ancient or medieval era texts, numerous chapters and verses in Hindu texts are found about a bathing festival, the sacred junction of rivers Ganga, Yamuna and sacred Saraswati at Prayag, and pilgrimage to Prayag. These are in the form of ''Snana'' (bathe) ritual and in the form of ''Prayag Mahatmya'' (greatness of Prayag, historical tour guides in Sanskrit).

History

The first Kumbh Mela event was organised in 1870, under British supervision. Some observers have found similarities between Kumbh Mela and other events that took place in the earlier times.

A mention of Prayaga and the bathing pilgrimage is found in ''Rigveda Pariśiṣṭa'' (supplement to the ''Rigveda''). It is also mentioned in the Pali canons of Buddhism, such as in section 1.7 of '' Majjhima Nikaya'', wherein the Buddha states that bathing in ''Payaga'' (Skt: Prayaga) cannot wash away cruel and evil deeds, rather the virtuous one should be pure in heart and fair in action. The ''Mahabharata'' mentions a bathing pilgrimage at Prayag as a means of ''prāyaścitta'' (atonement, penance) for past mistakes and guilt. In ''Tirthayatra Parva'', before the great war, the epic states "the one who observes firm thicalvows, having bathed at Prayaga during Magha, O best of the Bharatas, becomes spotless and reaches heaven." In ''Anushasana Parva'', after the war, the epic elaborates this bathing pilgrimage as "geographical tirtha" that must be combined with ''Manasa-tirtha'' (tirtha of the heart) whereby one lives by values such as truth, charity, self-control, patience and others.

There are other references to Prayaga and river-side festivals in ancient Indian texts, including at the places where present-day Kumbh Melas are held, but the exact age of the Kumbh Mela is uncertain. The 7th-century Buddhist Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) mentions king Harsha and his capital of Prayag, which he states to be a sacred Hindu city with hundreds of "deva temples" and two Buddhist institutions. He also mentions the Hindu bathing rituals at the junction of the rivers. According to some scholars, this is the earliest surviving historical account of the Kumbh Mela, which took place in present-day Prayag in 644 CE.

Some traditions ascribe Kumbha Mela's origins to the 8th CE philosopher Shankara as a part of his efforts to start major Hindu gatherings for philosophical discussions and debates along with Hindu monasteries across the Indian subcontinent.

Kama MacLean, an Indologist who has published articles on the Kumbh Mela predominantly based on the colonial archives and English-language media, states based on emails from other scholars and a more recent interpretation of the 7th-century Xuanzang memoir, the Prayag event happened every 5 years (and not 12 years), featured a Buddha statue, involved alms giving and it might have been a Buddhist festival. In contrast, Ariel Glucklich – a scholar of Hinduism and Anthropology of Religion, the Xuanzang memoir includes, somewhat derisively, the reputation of Prayag as a place where people (Hindus) once committed superstitious devotional suicide to liberate their souls, and how a Brahmin of an earlier era successfully put an end to this practice. This and other details such as the names of temples and bathing pools suggest that Xuanzang presented Hindu practices at Prayag in the 7th century, from his Buddhist perspective and perhaps to "amuse his audience back in China", states Glucklich.

Other early accounts of the significance of Prayag to Hinduism are found in the various versions of the ''Prayaga Mahatmya'', dated to the late 1st millennium CE. These Purana-genre Hindu texts describe it as a place "bustling with pilgrims, priests, vendors, beggars, guides" and local citizens busy along the confluence of the rivers (''Sangam''). These Sanskrit guide books of the medieval era India were updated over its editions, likely by priests and guides who had a mutual stake in the economic returns from the visiting pilgrims. One of the longest sections about Prayag rivers and their significance to Hindu pilgrimage is found in chapters 103–112 of the ''Matsya Purana''.

Evolution of earlier melas to Kumbh Melas

Some observers have found similarities between Kumbh Mela and other events that took place in the earlier times.

According to James Lochtefeld – a scholar of Indian religions, the phrase Kumbh Mela and historical data about it is missing in early Indian texts. However, states Lochtefeld, these historical texts "clearly reveal large, well-established bathing festivals" that were either annual or based on the twelve-year cycle of planet Jupiter. Manuscripts related to Hindu ascetics and warrior-monks – ''akharas'' fighting the Islamic Sultanates and Mughal Empire era – mention bathing pilgrimage and a large periodic assembly of Hindus at religious festivals associated with bathing, gift-giving, commerce and organisation. An early account of the Haridwar Kumbh Mela was published by Captain Thomas Hardwicke in 1796 CE.

According to James Mallinson – a scholar of Hindu yoga manuscripts and monastic institutions, bathing festivals at Prayag with large gatherings of pilgrims are attested since "at least the middle of the first millennium CE", while textual evidence exists for similar pilgrimage at other major sacred rivers since the medieval period. Four of these morphed under the Kumbh Mela brand during the East India Company rule (British colonial era) when it sought to control the war-prone monks and the lucrative tax and trade revenues at these Hindu pilgrimage festivals. Additionally, the priests sought the British administration to recognise the festival and protect their religious rights.

The 16th-century ''Ramcharitmanas'' of Tulsidas mentions an annual ''Mela'' in Prayag, as does a Muslim historian's ''Ain-i-Akbari'' (c. 1590 CE). The latter Akbar-era Persian text calls Prayag (spells it ''Priyag'') the "king of shrines" for the Hindus, and mentions that it is considered particularly holy in the Hindu month of ''Magha''. The late 16th-century ''Tabaqat-i-Akbari'' also records of an annual bathing festival at Prayag Sangam where "various classes of Hindus came from all sides of the country to bathe, in such numbers, that the jungles and plains round itwere unable to hold them".

The Kumbh Mela of Haridwar appears to be the original Kumbh Mela, since it is held according to the astrological sign "Kumbha" ( Aquarius), and because there are several references to a 12-year cycle for it. The later Mughal Empire era texts that contain the term "Kumbha Mela" in Haridwar's context include ''Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh'' (1695–1699 CE), and '' Chahar Gulshan'' (1759 CE). The ''Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh'' also mentions an annual bathing pilgrimage festival in Prayag, but it does not call it Kumbh. Both these Mughal era texts use the term "Kumbh Mela" to describe only Haridwar's fair, mentioning a similar fair held in Prayag and Nashik. The ''Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh'' lists the following melas: an annual mela and a Kumbh Mela every 12 years at Haridwar; a mela held at Trimbak when Jupiter enters Leo (that is, once in 12 years); and an annual mela held at Prayag (in modern Prayagraj) in Magh.

Like the Prayag mela, the bathing pilgrimage mela at Nasik and Ujjain are of considerable antiquity. However, these were referred to as ''Singhasth mela'', and the phrase "Kumbh mela" is yet to be found in literature prior to the 19th century. The phrases such as "Maha Kumbh" and "Ardh Kumbh" in the context of the ancient religious pilgrimage festivals with different names at Prayag, Nasik and Ujjain are evidently of a more modern era.

The Magh Mela of Prayag is probably the oldest among the four modern-day Kumbh Melas. It dates from the early centuries CE, given it has been mentioned in several early Puranas. However, the name Kumbh for these more ancient bathing pilgrimages probably dates to the mid-19th century. D. P. Dubey states that none of the ancient Hindu texts call the Prayag fair a "Kumbh Mela". Kama Maclean states that the early British records do not mention the name "Kumbh Mela" or the 12-year cycle for the Prayag fair. The first British reference to the Kumbh Mela in Prayag occurs only in an 1868 report, which mentions the need for increased pilgrimage and sanitation controls at the "Coomb fair" to be held in January 1870. According to Maclean, the Prayagwal Brahmin priests of Prayag coopted the Kumbh legend and brand to the annual Prayag Magh Mela given the socio-political circumstances in the 19th century.

The Kumbh Mela at Ujjain began in the 18th century when the Maratha ruler Ranoji Shinde invited ascetics from Nashik to Ujjain for a local festival. Like the priests at Prayag, those at Nashik and Ujjain, competing with other places for a sacred status, may have adopted the Kumbh tradition for their pre-existing Magha melas.

Akharas: Warrior monks, recruitment drive and logistics

One of the key features of the Kumbh Mela has been the camps and processions of the ''sadhus'' (monks). By the 18th century, many of these had organised into one of thirteen ''akharas'' (warrior ascetic bands, monastic militia), of which ten were related to Hinduism and three related to Sikhism. Seven have belonged to the Shaivism tradition, three to Vaishnavism, two to Udasis (founded by Guru Nanak's son) and one to Nirmalas. These soldier-monk traditions have been a well-established feature of the Indian society, and they are prominent feature of the Kumbh melas.

Until the East India Company rule, the Kumbh Melas (Magha Melas) were managed by these akharas. They provided logistical arrangements, and policing, intervened and judged any disputes and collected taxes. They also have been a central attraction and a stop for mainstream Hindus who seek their ''darsana'' (meeting, view) as well as spiritual guidance and blessings. The Kumbh Melas have been one of their recruitment and initiation venues, as well as the place to trade. These ''akharas'' have roots in the Hindu ''Naga'' (naked) monks tradition, who went to war without clothes. These monastic groups traditionally credit the Kumbh mela to the 8th-century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara, as a part of his efforts to start monastic institutions (''matha''), and major Hindu gatherings for philosophical discussions and debates. However, there is no historical literary evidence that he actually did start the Kumbh melas.

During the 17th century, the ''akharas'' competed for ritual primacy, priority rights to who bathes first or at the most auspicious time, and prominence leading to violent conflicts. The records from the East India Company rule era report of violence between the ''akharas'' and numerous deaths. At the 1760 Kumbh Mela in Haridwar, a clash broke out between Shaivite Gosains and Vaishnavite Bairagis (ascetics), resulting in hundreds of deaths. A copper plate inscription of the Maratha Peshwa claims that 12,000 ascetics died in a clash between Shaivite ''sanyasi''s and Vaishnavite ''bairagi''s at the 1789 Nashik Kumbh Mela. The dispute started over the bathing order, which then indicated the status of the ''akhara''s. At the 1796 Kumbh Mela in Haridwar, violence broke out between the Shaivites and the Udasis on logistics and camping rights.

The repetitive clashes, battle-ready nature of the warrior monks, and the lucrative tax and trading opportunities at Kumbh melas in the 18th century attracted the attention of the East India Company officials. They intervened, laid out the camps, trading spaces, and established a bathing order for each akhara. After 1947, the state governments have taken over this role and provide the infrastructure for the Kumbh Mela in their respective states. The first Kumbh Mela event under British supervision was organised in 1870.

The Kumbh Melas attract many loner ''sadhus'' (monks) who do not belong to any akharas. Of those who do belong to a group, the thirteen active akharas have been,
*7 Shaiva akharas: Mahanirvani, Atal, Niranjani, Anand, Juna, Avahan, and Agni
*3 Vaishnava akharas: Nirvani, Digamb

Significance and impact

The Kumbh Melas of the past, albeit with different regional names, attracted large attendance and have been religiously significant to the Hindus for centuries. They have included initiation of followers to the ''akharas'', discourses of religious leaders, and religious music. The 1834 Islamic encyclopaedia '' Yadgar-i-Bahaduri'' written in Lucknow described the Prayag festival and its sanctity to the Hindus. It is also financially significant.

Officials of the East India Company saw the Hindu pilgrimage as a means to collect large sums of revenue through a "pilgrim tax" and taxes on the trade that occurred during the festival. The British officials raised the tax to amount greater than average monthly income and the attendance fell drastically. The Prayagwal pandas resisted as the impact of the religious tax on the pilgrims became clear. According to colonial records, they had originally supported the tax; since the records of the Prayag Mela during this period were written by colonialists and missionaries, Macclean argues that they present a biased materialistic view.

Baptist missionary John Chamberlain, who visited the 1824 Ardh Kumbh Mela at Haridwar, stated that a large number of visitors came there for trade. He also includes a 1814 letter from his missionary friend who distributed copies of the Gospel to the pilgrims and tried to convert some to Christianity. According to an 1858 account of the Haridwar Kumbh Mela by the British civil servant Robert Montgomery Martin, the visitors at the fair included people from a number of races and clime. Along with priests, soldiers, and religious mendicants, the fair had horse traders from Bukhara, Kabul, Turkistan as well as Arabs and Persians. The festival had roadside merchants of food grains, confectioners, clothes, toys and other items. Thousands of pilgrims in every form of transport as well as on foot marched to the pilgrimage site, dressed in colourful costumes, some without clothes, occasionally shouting "Mahadeo Bol" and "Bol, Bol" together. At night the river banks and camps illuminated with oil lamps, fireworks burst over the river, and innumerable floating lamps set by the pilgrims drifted downstream of the river. Several Hindu rajas, Sikh rulers and Muslim Nawabs visited the fair. Europeans watched the crowds and few Christian missionaries distributed their religious literature at the Hardwar Mela, wrote Martin.

Prior to 1838, British officials collected taxes but provided no infrastructure or services to the pilgrims. This changed particularly after 1857. According to Amna Khalid, the Kumbh Melas emerged as one of the social and political mobilisation venues and the colonial government became keen on monitoring these developments after the Indian rebellion of 1857. The government deployed police to gain this intelligence at the grassroots level of Kumbh Mela. The British officials in co-operation with the native police also made attempts to improve the infrastructure, and movement of pilgrims to avoid a stampede, detect sickness, and the sanitary conditions at the Melas. Reports of cholera led the officials to cancel the pilgrimage, but the pilgrims went on "passive resistance" and stated they preferred to die rather than obey the official orders. Mark Twain also visited Kumbh Mela of Prayagraj in 1895 for which he wrote:

The positive impact of kumbh mela is this festival helps preserve cultural traditions and promotes the values of spirituality, unity, and devotion.

It is wonderful, the power of a faith like that, that can make multitudes upon multitudes of the old and weak and the young and frail enter without hesitation or complaint upon incredible journeys and endure the resultant miseries without repining.

In 1938, Lord Auckland abolished the pilgrim tax, after which the number of pilgrims increased.

1857 rebellion and the Independence movement

According to the colonial archives, the Prayagwal community associated with the Kumbh Mela were one of those who seeded and perpetuated the resistance and 1857 rebellion against the colonial rule. Prayagwals objected to and campaigned against the colonial government-supported Christian missionaries and officials who treated them and the pilgrims as "ignorant co-religionists" and those who aggressively tried to convert the Hindu pilgrims to a Christian sect. During the 1857 rebellion, Colonel Neill targeted the Kumbh Mela site and shelled the region where the Prayagwals lived, destroying it in what Maclean describes as a "notoriously brutal pacification of Allahabad". In response, the Prayagwals targeted and destroyed the local mission press and churches. Once the British had regained control of the region, the Prayagwals were persecuted by colonial officials. Some were convicted and hanged, while others for whom the government did not have proof enough to convict were persecuted. Large tracts of Kumbh Mela lands near the Ganga-Yamuna confluence were confiscated and annexed into the government cantonment. In the years after 1857, the Prayagwals and the Kumbh Mela pilgrim crowds carried flags with images alluding to the rebellion and the racial persecution. The British media reported these pilgrim assemblies and protests at the later Kumbh Mela as strangely "hostile" and with "disbelief."
The Kumbh Mela continued to play an important role in the independence movement through 1947, as a place where the native people and politicians periodically gathered in large numbers. In 1906, the Sanatan Dharm Sabha met at the Prayag Kumbh Mela and resolved to start the Banaras Hindu University in Madan Mohan Malaviya's leadership. Kumbh Melas have also been one of the hubs for the Hindutva movement and politics. In 1964, the Vishva Hindu Parishad was founded at the Haridwar Kumbh Mela.

Rising attendance and scale

The historical and modern estimates of attendance vary greatly between sources. For example, the colonial era ''Imperial Gazetteer of India'' reported that between 2 and 2.5 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh Mela in 1796 and 1808, then added these numbers may be exaggerations. Between 1892 and 1908, in an era of major famines, cholera and plague epidemics in British India, the pilgrimage dropped to between 300,000 and 400,000.Haridwar
''The Imperial Gazetteer of India'', 1909, v. 13, pp. 52–53

During World War II, the colonial government banned the Kumbh Mela to conserve scarce supplies of fuel. The ban, coupled with false rumours that Japan planned to bomb and commit genocide at the Kumbh Mela site, led to sharply lower attendance at the 1942 Kumbh Mela than in prior decades when an estimated 2 to 4 million pilgrims gathered at each Kumbh mela. After India's independence, the attendance rose sharply. On ''amavasya'' – one of the three key bathing dates, over 5 million attended the 1954 Kumbh, about 10 million attended the 1977 Kumbh while the 1989 Kumbh attracted about 15 million.

On 14 April 1998, 10 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh Mela at Haridwar on the busiest single day, according to the Himalayan Academy editors. In 2001, IKONOS satellite images confirmed a very large human gathering, with officials estimating 70 million people over the festival, including more than 40 million on the busiest single day according to BBC News. Another estimate states that about 30 million attended the 2001 Kumbh mela on the busiest ''mauni amavasya'' day alone.

In 2007, as many as 70 million pilgrims attended the 45-day-long Ardha Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj. In 2013, 120 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj. Nasik has registered maximum visitors to 75 million.

Maha Kumbh at Prayagraj is the largest in the world, the attendance and scale of preparation of which keeps rising with each successive celebration. For the 2019 Ardh Kumbh at Prayagraj, the preparations included the construction of a temporary city over 2,500 hectares with 122,000 temporary toilets and range of accommodation from simple dormitory tents to 5-star tents, 800 special trains by the Indian Railways, artificially intelligent video surveillance and analytics by IBM, disease surveillance, river transport management by Inland Waterways Authority of India, and an app to help the visitors.Kumbh Mela: How UP will manage one of the world's biggest religious festival
Economic Times, 21 December 2018.

The Kumbh Mela is "widely regarded as the world's largest religious gathering", states James Lochtefeld. According to Kama Maclean, the coordinators and attendees themselves state that a part of the glory of the Kumbh festival is in that "feeling of brotherhood and love" where millions peacefully gather on the river banks in harmony and a sense of shared heritage.

In modern religious and psychological theory, the Kumbh Mela exemplifies Émile Durkheim's concept of collective effervescence. This phenomenon occurs when individuals gather in shared rituals, fostering a profound sense of unity and belonging. The collective energy generated during the Mela strengthens social bonds and elevates individual and communal consciousness, illustrating the power of such gatherings to create shared identity and purpose.

Stampedes and scandals

Several stampedes have occurred at the sites related to the Kumbh Melas. After an 1820 stampede at Haridwar killed 485 people, the Company government took extensive infrastructure projects, including the construction of new ghats and road widening, to prevent further stampedes. The various Kumbh melas, in the 19th- and 20th century witnessed sporadic stampedes, each tragedy leading to changes in how the flow of pilgrims to and from the river and ghats was managed. In a major crowd crush, over 500 people died in the 1954 Kumbh Mela stampede, although the real figure varies according to different sources. In 1986, 50 people were killed in a stampede.

The Prayag Kumbh Mela in 1885 became a source of scandal when a Muslim named Husain was appointed as the Kumbh Mela manager, and Indian newspaper reports stated that Husain had "organised a flotilla of festooned boats for the pleasure of European ladies and gentlemen, and entertained them with dancing girls, liquor and beef" as they watched the pilgrims bathing.

The Kumbh Mela held in Haridwar in 2021 was considered a COVID-19 super spreader, contributing to increased cases in Uttarakhand and India, as the growing number of pilgrims visiting the area and numerous health guidelines being violated. As the second wave was increasing infections in India, calls to cancel the festival were rejected by the state and central government that assured the festival clean and safe.

In January 2025, at least 50 people died and 100 others were injured in the stampede at the Maha Kumbh venue in Prayagraj, and Amrit Snan was temporarily suspended. It was announced that a judicial enquiry by a three-member committee would be conducted, led by Justice Harsh Kumar. Media investigations have suggested a higher number of fatalities and a potential coverup.

Calendar, locations and preparation

Types

The Kumbh Mela are classified as:
* The Purna ("full") Kumbh Melas, which are held every 12 years at a given site.
* The Ardh ("half") Kumbh Mela held approximately every 6 years between the two Purna Kumbha Melas at Prayagraj and Haridwar.
For the 2019 Prayagraj Kumbh Mela, the Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath announced that the Ardh Kumbh Mela (organised every 6 years) will simply be known as "Kumbh Mela", and the Kumbh Mela (organised every 12 years) will be known as "Maha Kumbh Mela" ("Great Kumbh Mela"). The term Maha Kumbh Mela has also been used to publicise certain kumbha melas that are said to have had astrological attributes that would not be repeated for another 144 years, including the ones in 1954, 1989, 2001, and 2025.

Locations

The fairs held at four sites are broadly recognised as the Kumbh Melas: Prayagraj, Haridwar, Nashik and Ujjain. Priests at other places have also attempted to boost the status of their '' tirtha'' by adapting the Kumbh legends. The places whose festivals have been claimed as "Kumbh Mela" include Thirumakudalu Narasipura in Karnataka, Varanasi and Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, Kumbhakonam (Mahamaham) in Tamil Nadu, Rajim (Rajim Kumbh Mela) in Chhattisgarh, Bansberia (Bansberia Kumbh Mela) in West Bengal, KurukshetraG. S. Randhir, 2016
Sikh Shrines in India
and Sonipat in Haryana;Madan Prasad Bezbaruah, Dr. Krishna Gopal, Phal S. Girota, 2003
Fairs and Festivals of India: Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh
and Panauti in Nepal. In 2022, the Bansberia Kumbh Mela ( Hooghly) was claimed to have been organised after a 700-year old break. Even Tibet has hosted a festival claimed to be a Kumbh Mela.

Dates

Each site's celebration dates are calculated in advance according to a special combination of zodiacal positions of Bṛhaspati (Jupiter), Surya (the Sun) and Chandra (the Moon). The relative years vary between the four sites, but the cycle repeats about every 12 years. Since Jupiter's orbit completes in 11.86 years, a calendar year adjustment appears in approximately 8 cycles. Therefore, approximately once a century, the Kumbh Mela returns to a site after 11 years.

Past and future years

Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj is celebrated approximately 3 years after Kumbh at Haridwar and 3 years before Kumbh at Nashik and Ujjain (both of which are celebrated in the same year or one year apart - with Ujjain Mela occurring after Nashik).

Festival management

The Kumbh Mela attracts tens of millions of pilgrims. Providing for a safe and pleasant temporary stay at the festival site is a complex and challenging task. The camping (santhas/akharas), food, water, sanitation, emergency health care, fire services, policing, disaster management preparations, and the movement of people require significant prior planning. Further, assistance to those with special needs and lost family members through ''Bhule-Bhatke Kendra'' demands extensive onsite communication and coordination. In the case of Prayag in particular, the festival site is predominantly submerged during the monsoon months. The festival management workers have only two and a half months to start and complete the construction of all temporary infrastructure necessary for the pilgrims, making the task even more challenging.

In 2013, the Indian government authorities, in co-operation with ''seva'' volunteers, monks and Indian companies, set up 11 sectors with 55 camp clusters, providing round-the-clock first aid, ambulance, pharmacy, sector cleaning, sanitation, food and water distribution (setting up of pipelines operated by 42 pumps), cooking fuel, and other services. According to Baranwal et al., their 13-day field study of the 2013 Kumbh Mela found that "the Mela committee and all other agencies involved in Mela management successfully supervised the event and made it convenient, efficient and safe," an assessment shared by the US-based Center for Disease Control for the Nasik Kumbh mela.

In 2025, more than 13000 trains including 3000 special trains have allocated to accommodate large volume of passengers. Yet the surge in devotees caused a full blown crisis across railway stations, especially in Bihar, where passengers who were trying to board the train caused extensive damages to trains. At Madhubani and Samastipur stations, devotees vandalised six air-conditioned coaches of the Jayanagar-New Delhi Swatantrata Senani Express.

Rituals

Bathing and processions

Bathing, or a dip in the river waters, with a prayer, is the central ritual of the Kumbh Melas for all pilgrims. Traditionally, on ''amavasya'' – the most cherished day for bathing – the Hindu pilgrims welcome and wait for the thirteen sadhu akharas to bathe first. This event – called ''shahi snan'' or ''rajyogi snan'' – is marked by a celebratory processional march, with banners, flags, elephants, horses and musicians along with the naked or scantily clad monks, some smeared with ''bhasma'' (ashes). These monastic institutions come from different parts of India, and have a particular emblem symbol and deity (Ganesha, Dattatreya, Hanuman, etc.). The largest contingent is the Juna akhara, traced to Adi Shankara, representing a diverse mix from the four of the largest Hindu monasteries in India with their headquarters at Sringeri, Dvarka, Jyotirmatha and Govardhana. The Mahanirbani and Niranjani are the other large contingents, and each akhara has their own lineage of saints and teachers. Large crowds gather in reverence and cheer for this procession of monks. Once these monks have taken the dip, the festival day opens for bathing by the pilgrims from far and near the site.Special Bathing Dates
, Kumbh Mela Official, Government of India (2019)

The bathing ritual by the pilgrims may be aided by a Prayagwal priest or maybe a simple dip that is private. When aided, the rituals may begin with ''mundan'' (shaving of head), prayers with offerings such as flowers, ''sindur'' (vermilion), milk or coconut, along with the recitation of hymns with ''shradha'' (prayers in the honour of one's ancestors). More elaborate ceremonies include a ''yajna'' (homa) led by a priest. After these river-side rituals, the pilgrim then takes a dip in the water, stands up, prays for a short while, then exits the river waters. Many then proceed to visit old Hindu temples near the site.

The motivations for the bathing ritual are several. The most significant is the belief that the ''tirtha'' (pilgrimage) to the Kumbh Mela sites and then bathing in these holy rivers has a salvific value, ''moksha'' – a means to liberation from the cycle of rebirths (''samsara''). The pilgrimage is also recommended in Hindu texts to those who have made mistakes or sinned, to repent for their errors and as a means of prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for these mistakes. Pilgrimage and bathing in holy rivers with a motivation to do penance and as a means to self-purify has Vedic precedents and is discussed in the early ''dharma'' literature of Hinduism. For example, in the epic ''Mahabharata'', the king Yudhisthira is described to be in a state full of sorrow and despair after participating in the violence of the great war that killed many. He goes to a saint, who advises him to go on a pilgrimage to Prayag and bathe in the river Ganges as a means of penance.

Feasts, festivities and discussions

Some pilgrims walk considerable distances and arrive barefoot, as a part of their religious tradition. Most pilgrims stay for a day or two, but some stay the entire month of ''Magh'' during the festival and live an austere life during the stay. They attend spiritual discourses, fast and pray over the month, and these Kumbh pilgrims are called ''kalpavasis''.

The festival site is strictly vegetarian by tradition, as violence against animals is considered unacceptable. Many pilgrims practice partial (one meal a day) or full ''vrata'' (day-long fasting), and some abstain from elaborate meals. These ritual practices are punctuated by celebratory feasts where the vast number of people sit in rows and share a community meal – ''mahaprasada'' – prepared by volunteers from charitable donations. By tradition, families and companies sponsor these ''anna dana'' (food charity) events, particularly for the monks and the poor pilgrims. The management has established multiple food stalls, offering delicacies from different states of India.

Other activities at the mela include religious discussions (''pravachan''), devotional singing (''kirtan''), and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardised (''shastrartha''). The festival grounds also feature a wide range of cultural spectacles over the month of celebrations. These include ''kalagram'' (venues of ''kala'', Indian arts), laser light shows, classical dance and musical performances from different parts of India, thematic gates reflecting the historic regional architectural diversity, boat rides, tourist walks to historic sites near the river, as well opportunities to visit the monastic camps to watch yoga adepts and spiritual discourses.Attractions and Cultural Events of Kumbh
, Kumbh Mela Official, Government of India (2019)

Darshan

Darshan, or the act of sacred viewing, holds immense significance at the Kumbh Mela. Pilgrims undertake this journey to experience the profound religious and cultural essence of the event. Two key groups central to the Kumbh Mela are the Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) and the pilgrims. Through their dedicated yogic practices, Sadhus embody the transient nature of life and play a vital role in connecting the spiritual and the mundane.

Sadhus attend the Kumbh Mela to engage with the broader Hindu community, offering the opportunity for devotees to partake in darshan. This interaction allows pilgrims to seek spiritual guidance and advice. Darshan emphasises a visual exchange—a divine connection where worshippers symbolically "drink" the deity's power through sight.

The Kumbh Mela is structured into camps, facilitating access to Sadhus for Hindu worshippers. The darshan experience is integral to the Kumbh Mela, and worshippers approach it with great reverence, ensuring they do not inadvertently offend the religious sanctity of the moment. Interactions with Sadhus are highly respectful, with devotees often leaving offerings at their feet as tokens of devotion and gratitude.

In culture

Kumbh Mela has been a theme for many documentaries, including ''Kings with Straw Mats'' (1998) directed by Ira Cohen, ''Kumbh Mela: The Greatest Show on Earth'' (2001) directed by Graham Day, '' Short Cut to Nirvana: Kumbh Mela'' (2004) directed by Nick Day and produced by Maurizio Benazzo, ''Kumbh Mela: Songs of the River'' (2004) by Nadeem Uddin, ''Invocation, Kumbh Mela'' (2008), ''Kumbh Mela 2013: Living with Mahatiagi'' (2013) by the Ukrainian Religious Studies Project Ahamot, and ''Kumbh Mela: Walking with the Nagas'' (2011), ''Amrit: Nectar of Immortality'' (2012) directed by Jonas Scheu and Philipp Eyer.

In 2007, National Geographic filmed and broadcast a documentary of the Prayag Kumbh Mela, named ''Inside Nirvana'', under the direction of Karina Holden with the scholar Kama Maclean as a consultant. In 2013, National Geographic returned and filmed the documentary ''Inside the Mahakumbh''. Indian and foreign news media have covered the Kumbh Mela regularly. On 18 April 2010, a popular American morning show, ''CBS News Sunday Morning'', extensively covered Haridwar's Kumbh Mela, calling it "The Largest Pilgrimage on Earth". On 28 April 2010, the BBC released an audio and a video report on Kumbh Mela, titled "Kumbh Mela: 'greatest show on earth'. On 30 September 2010, the Kumbh Mela featured in the second episode of the Sky One TV series ''An Idiot Abroad'' with Karl Pilkington visiting the festival.

Young siblings getting separated at the Kumbh Mela was once a recurring theme in Hindi movies. ''Amrita Kumbher Sandhane'', a 1982 Bengali feature film directed by Dilip Roy, also documents the Kumbh Mela.

Ashish Avikunthak's Bengali-language feature length fiction film ''Kalkimanthakatha'' (2015) was shot in the Prayag Kumbh Mela in 2013. In this film, two characters search for the tenth and final avatar of Lord Vishnu – Kalki, in the lines of Samuel Beckett's ''Waiting for Godot''.

See also

* Barahakshetra – A semi-Kumbh Mela in Sunsari Nepal
* Mahamaham – the Tamil Kumbh Mela
* Pushkaram – the river festivals of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
* Pushkar Fair – the springtime fair in Rajasthan, includes the tradition of a dip in the Pushkar lake
* List of largest gatherings in history

Notes

References

Bibliography

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* Harvard University, South Asia Institute (2015) ''Kumbh Mela: Mapping the Ephemeral Megacity'' New Delhi: Niyogi Books.
* Kumbh Mela and The Sadhus, (English, Paperback, Badri Narain and Kedar Narain) Pilgrims Publishings, India, , 8177698052
* Kumbh : Sarvjan – Sahbhagita ka Vishalatam Amritparva with 1 Disc (Hindi, Paperback, Ramanand) Pilgrims Publishings, India,, 8177696718

External links

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