The Konbaung dynasty (), also known as the Third Burmese Empire (တတိယမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်), was the last dynasty that ruled
Burma
Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...
from 1752 to 1885. It created the second-largest empire in
Burmese history
The history of Myanmar ( ) covers the period from the time of first-known human settlements 13,000 years ago to the present day. The earliest inhabitants of recorded history were a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people who established the Pyu city-sta ...
and continued the administrative reforms begun by the
Toungoo dynasty
''taungnguumainn saat''
, conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty
, common_name = Taungoo dynasty
, status = Empire/Monarchy, Kingdom
, event_start = Independence from Kingdom of Ava, Ava Kingdom
, yea ...
, laying the foundations of the modern state of Burma. The reforms, however, proved insufficient to stem the advance of the
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
, who defeated the Burmese in all three
Anglo-Burmese Wars
The Anglo-Burmese people, also known as the Anglo-Burmans, are a community of Eurasians of Burmese and European descent; they emerged as a distinct community through mixed relationships (sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary) between the B ...
over a six-decade span (1824–1885) and ended the millennium-old Burmese monarchy in 1885.
Pretenders to the dynasty claim descent from
Myat Phaya Lat
Princess Myat Phaya Lat (, ; 4 October 1883 – 4 April 1956) was a Burmese royal princess and most senior member of the Royal House of Konbaung. She was the Royal Householder after the death of her father, King Thibaw while in exile in 1916 ...
, one of Thibaw's daughters.
An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns against the
Lushai Hills,
Manipur, Assam,
Arakan
Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
, the
Mon
Mon, MON or Mon. may refer to:
Places
* Mon State, a subdivision of Myanmar
* Mon, India, a town in Nagaland
* Mon district, Nagaland
* Mon, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
* Mon, Switzerland, a village in the Canton of Grisons
* A ...
kingdom of
Pegu
Bago (formerly spelled Pegu; , ), formerly known as Hanthawaddy, is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. It is located north-east of Yangon.
Etymology
The Burmese name Bago (ပဲခူး) is likely derived from the Mon lang ...
, Siam, and the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
of China—thus establishing the Third Burmese Empire. Subject to later wars and treaties with the British, the modern state of
Myanmar
Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
can trace its current borders to these events.
Throughout the Konbaung dynasty, the
capital
Capital and its variations may refer to:
Common uses
* Capital city, a municipality of primary status
** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital
** List of national capitals
* Capital letter, an upper-case letter
Econom ...
was relocated several times for religious, political, and strategic reasons.
History
Establishment
The dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known as
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya (, ; also spelled Alaunghpaya or Alaung-Phra; 11 May 1760) was the founder and first emperor of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. By the time of his death from illness during his Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60), campaign in Siam, this ...
, in 1752 to challenge the
Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
The Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom (), also known as the Neo-Ramanic State () was the kingdom that ruled Lower Burma and parts of Upper Burma from 1740 to 1757. The kingdom grew out of a rebellion by the Mon led population of Pegu, who then ra ...
which had just toppled the
Taungoo dynasty
''taungnguumainn saat''
, conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty
, common_name = Taungoo dynasty
, status = Empire/ Kingdom
, event_start = Independence from Ava Kingdom
, year_start = 15 ...
. By 1759, Alaungpaya's forces had reunited all of Burma (and
Manipur
Manipur () is a state in northeastern India with Imphal as its capital. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically t ...
) and driven out the
French
French may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France
** French people, a nation and ethnic group
** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices
Arts and media
* The French (band), ...
and the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.
Alaungpaya's second son,
Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin (, , ; ; 12 September 1736 – 10 June 1776) was the third emperor of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1763 to 1776. The second son of the dynasty founder Alaungpaya is best known for his wars with Qing China and Siam, a ...
, came to the throne after a short reign by his elder brother,
Naungdawgyi
Dabayin Min (), commonly known as Naungdawgyi ( ; 10 August 1734 – 28 November 1763) was the second king of Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar), from 1760 to 1763. He was a top military commander in his father Alaungpaya's reunification campai ...
(1760–1763). He continued his father's expansionist policy and finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, after seven years of fighting.
Relations with Siam
In 1760, Burma began a series of wars with
Siam
Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
that would last well into the middle of the 19th century. By 1770,
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya (, ; also spelled Alaunghpaya or Alaung-Phra; 11 May 1760) was the founder and first emperor of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. By the time of his death from illness during his Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60), campaign in Siam, this ...
's heirs had
destroyed Ayutthaya (1765–1767), subdued much of
Luang Phrabang
Luang Prabang ( Lao: ຫຼວງພະບາງ, pronounced ), historically known as Xieng Thong (ຊຽງທອງ) and alternatively spelled Luang Phabang or Louangphabang, is the capital of Luang Prabang Province in north-central Laos. I ...
and
Vientiane
Vientiane (, ) is the capital city, capital and largest city of Laos. Situated on the banks of the Mekong, Mekong River at the Thailand, Thai border, it comprises the five urban districts of Vientiane Prefecture and had a population of 840,000 ...
(both 1765) and defeated
four invasions by
Qing China
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty ...
(1765–1769). With the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the Chinese, Siam reunified by 1771, and went on to
capture Lan Na by 1776. The Burmese made additional invasions to the
newly reconstituted Siam in 1785 and 1786 but failed. Burma and Siam went to war until
1855
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario, is incorporated as a city.'
* January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru.
* January 23
** The first bridge over the Mississippi River o ...
but after decades of war, the two countries exchanged Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam).
Relations with China
In the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing dynasty of China which saw the threat of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. In 1770, despite his victory over the Chinese armies, King Hsinbyushin sued for peace with China and concluded a treaty to maintain bilateral trade with the Middle Kingdom which was very important for the dynasty at that time. The Qing dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788 after reconciliation. Thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time.
Relations with Vietnam
In 1823, Burmese emissaries led by George Gibson, who was the son of an English mercenary, arrived in the Vietnamese city of
Saigon
Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) ('','' TP.HCM; ), commonly known as Saigon (; ), is the most populous city in Vietnam with a population of around 14 million in 2025.
The city's geography is defined by rivers and canals, of which the largest is Saigo ...
. The Burmese king
Bagyidaw
Bagyidaw (, ; also known as Sagaing Min, ; 23 July 1784 – 15 October 1846) was the seventh king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma from 1819 until his abdication in 1837. Prince of Sagaing, as he was commonly known in his day, was selected as cr ...
was very keen to conquer
Siam
Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
and hoped Vietnam might be a useful ally. Vietnam had then just annexed Cambodia. The Vietnamese emperor was
Minh Mạng
Minh Mạng (), also known as Minh Mệnh (, vi-hantu, 明 命, lit. "the bright favour of Heaven"; 25 May 1791 – 20 January 1841; born Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, also known as Nguyễn Phúc Kiểu), was the second emperor of the Nguyễ ...
, who had just taken the throne after the death of his father,
Gia Long
Gia Long (Chữ Hán, Chữ hán: 嘉隆) ( (''Hanoi, North''), (''Ho Chi Minh City, South''); 8 February 1762 – 3 February 1820), born Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (阮福暎) or Nguyễn Ánh (阮暎), was the founding emperor of the Nguyễn dynas ...
(the founder of the
Nguyen dynasty
Nguyễn (阮) (sometimes abbreviated as Ng̃) is the most common surname of the Vietnamese people.
Outside of Vietnam, the surname is commonly rendered without diacritics as ''Nguyen''.
By some estimates 30 to 39 percent of Vietnamese peopl ...
). A commercial delegation from Vietnam has recently been in Burma, eager to expand the trade in birds nests ''(tổ yến)''. Bagyidaw's interest in sending a return mission, however, was to secure a military alliance.
Western expansion, First and Second Anglo-Burmese Wars
Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, the Konbaung dynasty had ambitions to expand the Konbaung Empire westwards.
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya (, ; ; 11 March 1745 – 5 June 1819) was the sixth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was procl ...
acquired the western kingdoms of
Arakan
Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
(1784),
Manipur
Manipur () is a state in northeastern India with Imphal as its capital. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically t ...
(1814), and
Assam
Assam (, , ) is a state in Northeast India, northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra Valley, Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . It is the second largest state in Northeast India, nor ...
(1817), leading to a long ill-defined border with
British India
The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in South Asia. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another ...
. The Konbaung court had set its sights on potentially conquering British Bengal by the outbreak of the
First Anglo-Burmese War
The First Anglo-Burmese War (; ; 5 March 1824 – 24 February 1826), also known as the First Burma War in English language accounts and First English Invasion War () in Burmese language accounts, was the first of three wars fought between the ...
.
Europeans began to set up trading posts in the
Irrawaddy delta
The Irrawaddy Delta or Ayeyarwady Delta lies in the Irrawaddy Division, the lowest expanse of land in Myanmar (Burma) that fans out from the limit of tidal influence at Myan Aung to the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, to the south at the mout ...
region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its independence by
balancing between the
French
French may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France
** French people, a nation and ethnic group
** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices
Arts and media
* The French (band), ...
and the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
. In the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in 1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
, culminating in the total annexation of Burma by the British.

The British defeated the Burmese in the
First Anglo-Burmese War
The First Anglo-Burmese War (; ; 5 March 1824 – 24 February 1826), also known as the First Burma War in English language accounts and First English Invasion War () in Burmese language accounts, was the first of three wars fought between the ...
(1824–1826) after huge losses on both sides, both in terms of manpower and financial assets. Burma had to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and
Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million
pounds.
In 1837, King
Bagyidaw
Bagyidaw (, ; also known as Sagaing Min, ; 23 July 1784 – 15 October 1846) was the seventh king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma from 1819 until his abdication in 1837. Prince of Sagaing, as he was commonly known in his day, was selected as cr ...
's brother,
Tharrawaddy, seized the throne, put Bagyidaw under house arrest and executed the chief queen
Me Nu and her brother. Tharrawaddy made no attempt to improve relations with Britain.

His son
Pagan
Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...
, who became king in 1846, executed thousands—some sources say as many as 6,000—of his wealthier and more influential subjects on trumped-up charges.
During his reign, relations with the British became increasingly strained. In 1852, the
Second Anglo-Burmese War
The Second Anglo-Burmese War or the Second Burma War ( ; 5 April 185220 January 1853) was the second of the three wars fought between the Burmese Empire and British Empire during the 19th century. The war resulted in a British victory with more ...
broke out. Pagan was succeeded by his younger brother, the progressive
Mindon.
Reforms
Realising the need to modernise, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reforms with limited success. King
Mindon with his able brother Crown Prince
Kanaung established state-owned factories to produce modern
weapon
A weapon, arm, or armament is any implement or device that is used to deter, threaten, inflict physical damage, harm, or kill. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime (e.g., murder), law ...
ry and
goods
In economics, goods are anything that is good, usually in the sense that it provides welfare or utility to someone. Alan V. Deardorff, 2006. ''Terms Of Trade: Glossary of International Economics'', World Scientific. Online version: Deardorffs ...
; in the end, these factories proved more costly than effective in staving off foreign invasion and conquest.
Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo dynasty period (1599–1752), and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced the hereditary privileges of
Shan chiefs. They also instituted commercial reforms that increased government income and rendered it more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground. In 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash taxes and salaries, assisted by the country's first standardised silver coinage.
Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the heavy
income tax
An income tax is a tax imposed on individuals or entities (taxpayers) in respect of the income or profits earned by them (commonly called taxable income). Income tax generally is computed as the product of a tax rate times the taxable income. Tax ...
and created a
property tax
A property tax (whose rate is expressed as a percentage or per mille, also called ''millage'') is an ad valorem tax on the value of a property.In the OECD classification scheme, tax on property includes "taxes on immovable property or Wealth t ...
, as well as
duties
A duty (from "due" meaning "that which is owing"; , past participle of ; , whence "debt") is a commitment or expectation to perform some action in general or if certain circumstances arise. A duty may arise from a system of ethics or morality, e ...
on foreign exports. These policies had the reverse effect of increasing the tax burden, as the local elites used the opportunity to enact new taxes without lowering the old ones; they were able to do so as control from the centre was weak. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade and commerce.
Mindon attempted to bring Burma into greater contact with the outside world, and hosted the
Fifth Great Buddhist Synod in 1872 at
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. It is located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 mi) north of Yangon. In 2014, the city had a population of 1,225,553.
Mandalay was founded in 1857 by Ki ...
, gaining the respect of the British and the admiration of his own people.
Mindon avoided annexation in 1875 by ceding the
Karenni States
The Karenni States, also known as Red Karen States, was the name formerly given to the states inhabited mainly by the Red Karen, in the area of present-day Kayah State, eastern Burma. They were located south of the Federated Shan States an ...
.
Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.
Third Anglo-Burmese War and dethronement of the monarchy
He died before he could name a successor, and
Thibaw, a lesser prince, was manoeuvred onto the throne by
Hsinbyumashin
Hsinbyumashin (; 22 November 1821 – 26 February 1900) was a List of Burmese consorts, senior queen of King Mindon Min of Burma during the Konbaung dynasty. She was known for the Bronze Hall Massacre. She was the daughter of King Bagyidaw and his ...
, one of Mindon's queens, together with her daughter,
Supayalat
Supayalat (, ; 13 December 1859 – 24 November 1925), also spelt Suphayalat, was the last queen of Burma who reigned in Mandalay (1878–1885), born to King Mindon Min and Queen of Alenandaw (; also known as Hsinbyumashin or Lady of the White Elep ...
. (
Rudyard Kipling
Joseph Rudyard Kipling ( ; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936)''The Times'', (London) 18 January 1936, p. 12. was an English journalist, novelist, poet, and short-story writer. He was born in British Raj, British India, which inspired much ...
mentions her as Thibaw's queen, and borrows her name, in his poem "
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. It is located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 mi) north of Yangon. In 2014, the city had a population of 1,225,553.
Mandalay was founded in 1857 by Ki ...
") The new King Thibaw proceeded, under Supayalat's direction, to massacre all likely contenders to the throne. This massacre was conducted by the queen.
The dynasty came to an end in 1885 with the forced abdication and exile of the king and the royal family to India. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of
French Indochina
French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China), officially known as the Indochinese Union and after 1941 as the Indochinese Federation, was a group of French dependent territories in Southeast Asia from 1887 to 1954. It was initial ...
, annexed the remainder of the country in the
Third Anglo-Burmese War
The Third Anglo-Burmese War (), also known as the Third Burma War, took place during 7–29 November 1885, with sporadic resistance continuing into 1887. It was the final of three wars fought in the 19th century between the Burmese and the Br ...
in 1885. The annexation was announced in the British parliament as a New Year gift to
Queen Victoria
Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria, her death in January 1901. Her reign of 63 year ...
on 1 January 1886.
Although the dynasty had conquered vast tracts of territory, its direct power was limited to its capital and the fertile plains of the
Irrawaddy River
The Irrawaddy River (, , Ayeyarwady) is the principal river of Myanmar, running through the centre of the country. Myanmar’s most important commercial waterway, it is about 1,350 miles (2,170 km) long. Originating from the confluence of the ...
valley. The Konbaung rulers enacted harsh levies and had a difficult time fighting internal rebellions. At various times, the
Shan states paid tribute to the Konbaung dynasty, but unlike the Mon lands, were never directly controlled by the Burmese.
Government
The Konbaung dynasty was an
absolute monarchy. As in the rest of Southeast Asia, the traditional concept of kingship aspired to the ''
Chakravartin
A ''chakravarti'' (, ) is an ideal (or idealized) universal ruler, in the history, and religion of India. The concept is present in Indian subcontinent cultural traditions, narrative myths and lore. There are three types of chakravarti: ''c ...
'' (Universal Monarchs) creating their own ''
mandala
A mandala (, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid ...
'' or field of power within the ''
Jambudipa'' universe, along with the possession of the white elephant which allowed them to assume the title ''Hsinbyushin'' or ''Hsinbyumyashin'' (Lord of the White Elephants), played a significant role in their endeavours. Of more earthly importance was the historical threat of periodic raids and aiding of internal rebellions as well as invasion and imposition of overlordship from the neighbouring kingdoms of the Mon, Tai Shans and Manipuris.
Administrative divisions
The kingdom was divided into provinces called ''myo'' (). These provinces were administered by Governors called ''Myosa'' (), who were members of the royal family or the highest-ranking officials of the Hluttaw. They collected revenue for the royal government, payable to the Royal Treasury in fixed instalments and retained whatever was left over. Each provinces was subdivided into towns and municipalities. Towns also called ''myo'' (), which were capitals of provinces. Towns were administered by Town Headman called ''Myo thugyi'' () or Town administrator called ''Myo Ok'' (). Municipalities called ''taik'' (), which contained collections of villages called ''ywa'' (). Municipalities were administered by Municipal Headman called ''Taik thugyi'' () and villages were administered by Village Headman called ''Ywa thugyi'' ().
The kingdom's peripheral coastal provinces; Arakan, Pegu, Martaban and Tavoy were administered by a Viceroy called a ''Myowun'' (), who was appointed by the king and possessed civil, judicial, fiscal and military powers. Provincial councils (''myoyon'') consisted of ''myo saye'' () (town scribes), ''nakhandaw'' ()(receivers of royal orders), ''sitke'' () (chiefs of war), ''htaunghmu'' ( (jailer), ''ayatgaung'' () (head of the quarter), and ''dagahmu'' () (warden of the gates). The Viceroy of Pegu was assisted by several additional officials, including an ''akhunwun'' () (revenue officer), ''akaukwun'' () (customs collector), and a ''yewun'' () (conservator of port).
The outlying tributary
fiefdom
A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...
s on the edges of the kingdom were autonomous in practice and nominally administered by the king. These included the Shan, Palaung, Kachin and Manipuri principalities. The tributary princes of these fiefdoms regularly pledged allegiance and offered tribute to the Konbaung kings (through rituals called ''
gadaw pwedaw'') () and were accorded with royal privileges and designated ''
sawbwa
Saopha (), also spelled Sawbwa, was the title used by hereditary rulers of Shan states in Upper Myanmar. Chaopha and Chao Fa were similar titles used by the hereditary Tai rulers in mainland Southeast Asia and the Ahom kingdom in India.
Nam ...
'' () (from Shan saopha, 'lord of the sky') In particular, the families of Shan ''sawbwa''s regularly intermarried into Burmese aristocracy and had close contact with the Konbaung court.
Royal agencies
The government was centrally administered by several advisory royal agencies, following a pattern established during the
Taungoo dynasty
''taungnguumainn saat''
, conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty
, common_name = Taungoo dynasty
, status = Empire/ Kingdom
, event_start = Independence from Ava Kingdom
, year_start = 15 ...
.
The
Hluttaw
The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw ( , ) is the ''de jure'' national-level bicameral legislature of Myanmar established by the 2008 National Constitution. The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw is made up of two houses, the 224-seat Amyotha Hluttaw, or "House of Nation ...
(, lit. "place of royal release," cf. Council of State) held legislative, ministerial and judicial functions, administering the royal government as delegated by the king. Sessions at the Hluttaw were held for six hours daily, from 6 to 9 a.m., and from noon to 3 p.m. Listed by rank, the Hluttaw was composed of:
* Head of the Council – the king, his heir apparent, or a high-ranking prince who presided over the Hluttaw as its nominal head.
* ''Wunshindaw'' (, Prime Minister) – served as the Chief Minister of the Hluttaw, an office established during the reign of
Mindon Min
Mindon Min (, ; 1808 – 1878), born Maung Lwin, was the penultimate king of Burma (Myanmar) from 1853 to 1878. He was one of the most popular and revered kings of Burma because of his role in the Fifth Buddhist Council. Under his half brothe ...
and most notably served by the
Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung
''Kinwun Mingyi'' U Kaung, Duke of Lekaing C.S.I. (, also spelt U Gaung; 3 February 1822 – 30 June 1908) was a Burmese chief minister during the reigns of King Mindon and Thibaw, as well as a colonial civil servant. He attempted to western ...
* Four ''Wungyi'' (, Minister) – jointly administered the Hluttaw's administrative portfolio and shared joint responsibility for the kingdom's administration.
** Four ''Wundauk'' (, Deputy Minister) – served as deputies to the ''Wungyi''
* ''Myinzugyi Wun'' (, lit. "Minister of the Cavalry Regiments") – as the highest regular army position, oversaw the
Tatmadaw
The Tatmadaw, also known as the Sit-Tat, is the armed forces of Myanmar (formerly Burma). It is administered by the Ministry of Defence and composed of the Myanmar Army, the Myanmar Navy and the Myanmar Air Force. Auxiliary services include ...
.
* ''Athi Wun'' (, lit. "Minister of the ''Athi''") – responsible for allocating
corvée
Corvée () is a form of unpaid forced labour that is intermittent in nature, lasting for limited periods of time, typically only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state (polity), state for the ...
labour resources and mobilisation of taxpaying commoners, called ''athi'', during wartime
The ''
Byedaik The ''Byedaik'' (, lit. "Bachelor Chambers") served as the Privy Council in pre-colonial Burma, by handling the court's internal affairs and also served as an interlocutor between the king and other royal agencies, including the Hluttaw.
Origins
T ...
'' (, lit. "Bachelor Chambers," with ''Bye'' stemming from
Mon
Mon, MON or Mon. may refer to:
Places
* Mon State, a subdivision of Myanmar
* Mon, India, a town in Nagaland
* Mon district, Nagaland
* Mon, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
* Mon, Switzerland, a village in the Canton of Grisons
* A ...
''blai'' (, "bachelor") served as the
Privy Council by handling the court's internal affairs and also served as an interlocutor between the king and other royal agencies. The Byedaik consisted of:
* Eight ''Atwinwun'' (, cf. 'Ministers of the Interior') – communicated business affairs of the Hluttaw to the king, administered internal transactions of general affairs relating to the royal court.
* ''Thandawzin'' (, "Heralds") – performed secretarial duties and attended king's audiences to note king's orders and forward them to Hluttaw for inscription.
* ''Simihtunhmu'' (, lit. "Lamp Lighters") – kept a list of all persons sleeping in the palace
* ''Hteindeinyanhmu'' (, "caretakers of royal appointments") – performed menial tasks such as maintaining the palace furniture, draperies and other appointments
The ''Shwedaik'' () was the Royal Treasury, and as such, served as the repository of the state's precious metals and treasures. Moreover, the Shwedaik retained the state's archives and maintained various records, including detailed genealogies of hereditary officials and census reports. The Shwedaik was composed of:
* ''Shwedaik Wun'' () –
Chancellor of the Exchequer
The chancellor of the exchequer, often abbreviated to chancellor, is a senior minister of the Crown within the Government of the United Kingdom, and the head of HM Treasury, His Majesty's Treasury. As one of the four Great Offices of State, t ...
* ''Shwedaik Saw'' () – Governor of the Treasury
* ''Shwedaik Kyat'' () – Superintendent
* ''Shwedaik Saye'' () – Clerk of the Treasury
* ''Shwedaik Thawkaing'' () – Keeper of the Treasury Key
Royal service

Each royal agency included a large retinue of middle and low level officials responsible for day-to-day affairs. These included the:
* ''Nakhandaw'' () – charged with conveying communications to and from the King and Hluttaw. Also served as intermediary between royal agencies and between king and ministers. Collected, sorted, interpreted reports, read proclamations at official gatherings, transmitted orders to provincial councils.
* ''Sayedawgyi'' (; great chief clerks) – performed executive level work and preliminary investigations for trials
** ''Saye'' (; clerks)
* ''Ameindawgyi'' (; writers of great orders) – prepared and issued royal orders after necessary preliminary steps had been taken.
* ''Athonsaye'' (; clerks of works) – oversaw construction and repairs of all public buildings
* ''Ahmadawye'' (; recorders of orders) – drafted orders and letters to be issued by Hluttaw
* ''Awayyauk'' (; distant arrivals) – received and read letters coming from distance before submission to ministers
* ''Thandawgan'' () – ceremonial officers who received letters on behalf of the king
and 3 classes of ceremonial officers:
# ''Letsaungsaye'' (clerks of presents) – read lists of offerings made to the King at royal functions
# ''Yonzaw'' (master of ceremonies) – arranged royal functions and audiences of the King
# ''Thissadawge'' (recorders of great oaths) – administered oaths of fealty to those entering the royal service
Royal court
Konbaung society was centred on the king, who took many wives and fathered numerous children, creating a huge extended royal family which formed the power base of the dynasty and competed over influence at the royal court. It also posed problems of succession at the same time often resulting in royal massacres.
The ''Lawka Byuha Kyan'' (), also known as the ''Inyon Sadan'' (), is the earliest extant work on Burmese court protocols and customs. The work was written by the Inyon Wungyi Thiri Uzana, also known as the Inyon Ywaza, during the reign of
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya (, ; also spelled Alaunghpaya or Alaung-Phra; 11 May 1760) was the founder and first emperor of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. By the time of his death from illness during his Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60), campaign in Siam, this ...
, the founder of the Konbaung dynasty.
Royal court life in the Konbaung dynasty consisted of both codified rituals and ceremonies and those that were innovated with the progression of the dynasty. Many ceremonies were composed of Hindu ideas localised and adapted to existing traditions, both Burmese and Buddhist in origin. These rituals were also used to legitimise the rule of Burmese kings, as the Konbaung monarchs claimed descent from
Maha Sammata
Maha and MAHA may refer to:
* Maha (name), an Arabic feminine given name
* ''Maha'' (film), an Indian Tamil-language thriller film
* MaHa, Nepali comedy duo, Madan Krishna Shrestha and Hari Bansha Acharya
* Make America Healthy Again (MAHA), t ...
through the
Sakyan clan (of which
Gotama Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),*
*
*
was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
was a member) and the
House of Vijaya
The House of Vijaya (also known as the Vijayan dynasty and sometimes referred to as the "Great Dynasty") was the first recorded Sinhalese royal dynasty that ruled over the island, Sri Lanka. According to Sri Lankan historical literature Prince ...
. Life in the royal court was closely regulated.
Eunuchs
A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
() oversaw the ladies of the royal household and apartments. Inferior queens and concubines could not reside in the main palace buildings.
Brahmins, generally known as ''ponna'' () in Burmese, served as specialists for ritual ceremonies, astrology, and devotional rites to Hindu deities at the Konbaung court. They played an essential role in king-making rituals, consecration and ablution ceremonies called ''
abhiseka
Abhisheka () is a religious Ritual, rite or method of prayer in which a devotee pours a liquid offering on an image or murti of a deity. This is common to religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Hinduism
An abhiṣeka is conducted ...
'' (). Court Brahmins (, ''parohita'') were well embedded in daily life at the court, advising and consulting the king on various matters. A social hierarchy among the Brahmins determined their respective duties and functions. Astrologer Brahmins called ''huya'' () were responsible for determining astrological calculations, such as determining the auspicious moment for the foundation of a new capital, a new palace, pagoda, or assumption of the royal residence, announcing an appointment, leaving a place, visiting a pagoda or starting a military campaign. They also established the religious calendar, prepared the almanac (), calculated upcoming solar and lunar eclipses, identified major festival days based on the lunar cycle, and communicated auspicious times and dates. A special group of Brahmins who performed ''abhiseka'' rituals were also selected as ''pyinnya shi'' (), appointed royal counselors.
Military
Royal rituals
Lavish affairs were also organised around the life ceremonies of royal family members. Brahmins presided over many of these auspicious ceremonies, including the construction of a new royal capital; consecration of the new palace, the royal ploughing ceremony; the naming, first rice feeding and cradling ceremonies; the ''abhiseka'' head anointing rituals, and the King's participation in
Burmese New Year
Thingyan (/sɛŋkəmɑ/ ; , Old Mon: သင်ကြာန် ), also known as the Myanmar New Year, is a festival that usually occurs in middle of April. Thingyan marks the transition from the old year to the new one, based on the traditional M ...
(Thingyan) celebrations. During Thingyan, a group of 8 Brahmins sprinkled water blessed by a group of 8 Buddhist monks, throughout the palace grounds, at the
Hluttaw
The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw ( , ) is the ''de jure'' national-level bicameral legislature of Myanmar established by the 2008 National Constitution. The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw is made up of two houses, the 224-seat Amyotha Hluttaw, or "House of Nation ...
, various courts, the major city gates, and the 4 corners of the capital. The king attended many of the ceremonies involving royal family members, from cradling ceremonies () to ear-boring ceremonies, from marriages to funerals.
Specific buildings in the royal palace served as the venue for various life ceremonies. For instance, the Great Audience Hall was where young princes underwent the ''
shinbyu
Shinbyu (; , also spelt shinpyu) is the Burmese term for a novitiate, novitiation ceremony (pabbajja) in the tradition of Theravada, Theravada Buddhism, referring to the celebrations marking the Śrāmaṇera, sāmaṇera (novitiate) monastic or ...
'' coming-of-age ceremony and were ordained as
monk novices. This was also the venue where young princes ceremonially had their hair tied in a topknot (). Elaborate Burmese New Year feasts took place at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors): on the third day of the New Year, the king and chief queen partook in Thingyan rice, cooked rice dipped in cold perfumed water, while seated on their throne. Musical and dramatic performances and other feasts were also held in that complex.
Consecration ceremonies (''abhiseka'')

The most significant court functions of a king's reign were the ''
abhiseka
Abhisheka () is a religious Ritual, rite or method of prayer in which a devotee pours a liquid offering on an image or murti of a deity. This is common to religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Hinduism
An abhiṣeka is conducted ...
'' or consecratory rituals, held at various times throughout a king's reign, to reinforce his place as the patron of religion (
Sasana) and righteousness. ''Abhiseka'' rituals all involved the pouring of water from a conch on the candidate's (usually the king's) head, instructing him what to do or not to do for the love of his people and warning him that if he failed to oblige, he might suffer certain miseries. Ablution rituals were the responsibility of a group of 8 elite Brahmins uniquely qualified to perform the ritual. They were to remain chaste before the ceremony. Another group of Brahmins was responsible for the consecration of the Crown Prince.
There were 14 types of ''abhiseka'' ceremonies in total:
# ''Rājabhiseka'' () – coronation of the king
# ''Muddhabhiseka'' () – formal vow by the king to work for the propagation of the
Sasana (the Buddha's teachings); held five years after accession
# ''Uparājabhiseka'' () – installation of crown prince
# ''Mahesībhiseka'' () – coronation of chief queen
# ''Maṅgalabhiseka'' () – held to celebrate the possession of
white elephants
A white elephant is a possession that its owner cannot dispose of without extreme difficulty, and whose cost, particularly that of maintenance, is out of proportion to its usefulness. In modern usage, it is a metaphor used to describe an object, ...
# ''Siriyabhiseka'' () – held to renew the king's glory, held on occasion
# ''Āyudighabhiseka'' () – held to gain longevity, held on occasion
# ''Jayabhiseka'' () – held to ensure victory and success in war
# ''Mahābhiseka'' () – held to increase economic prosperity, held seven years after accession
# ''Sakalabhiseka'' () – held to ensure peace in the kingdom
# ''Vijayabhiseka'' () – held to conquer enemies
# ''Mandabhiseka'' () – held to marry the candidate to a queen of royal lineage.
# ''Singabhiseka'' () – held to recommit a king to abide by the laws, whereupon full powers for the government and administration of the country are conferred
Coronation
''Rajabhiseka'' () – the Coronation of the king, which was presided over by Brahmins, was the most important ritual of the royal court. The ceremony was typically held in the Burmese month of ''
Kason
Kason (; ) is the second month of the traditional Burmese calendar.
Festivals and observances
* Full Moon of Kason ()
** Bodhi Tree Watering Festival ()
Kason symbols
*Flower: '' Magnolia champaca''
References
See also
*Burmese calendar
...
'', but did not necessarily occur during the beginning of a reign. The ''Sasanalinkaya'' states that
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya (, ; ; 11 March 1745 – 5 June 1819) was the sixth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was procl ...
, like his father, was crowned only after establishing control over the kingdom's administration and purifying the religious institutions. The most important features of this ritual were: the fetching of the anointing water; the ceremonial bath; the anointment; and the king's oath.
Elaborate preparations were made precisely for this ceremony. Three ceremonial pavilions (''Sihasana'' or
Lion Throne
The Lion Throne is the English term used to identify the throne of the Dalai Lama of Tibet. It specifically refers to the throne historically used by Dalai Lamas at Potala Palace in Lhasa.
See also
* List of Dalai Lamas
* Tibetan independence ...
; ''Gajasana'' or Elephant Throne; and the ''Marasana'' or Peacock Throne) were constructed in a specifically designated plot of land (called the "peacock garden") for this occasion. Offerings were also made to deities and Buddhist ''
paritta
Paritta (Pali), generally translated as "protection" or "safeguard," refers to the specific Buddhist verses and discourses recited in order to ward off misfortune or danger, as well as to the practice of reciting the verses and discourses. T ...
''s were chanted. Specially designated individuals, usually the daughters of dignitaries including merchants and Brahmins, were tasked with procuring anointing water midstream from a river. The water was placed in the respective pavilions.
At an auspicious moment, the king was dressed in the costume of a
Brahma
Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
and the queen in that of a queen from ''
devaloka
In Indian religions, a devaloka or deva loka is a plane of existence where deity, gods aka Deva (Hinduism), devas exist. The deva lokas are usually described as places of eternal light and goodness, similar to the concept of Heaven. Teachers ...
''. The couple was escorted to the pavilions in procession, accompanied by a white horse or a white elephant. The king first bathed his body in the Morasana pavilion, then his head in the Gajasana pavilion. He then entered the Sihasana pavilion to assume his seat at the coronation throne, crafted to resemble a blooming
lotus flower, made of
figwood and applied gold leaf. Brahmins handed him the five articles of coronation regalia (, ''Min Myauk Taza''):
# White umbrella (, ''hti byu'')
# Crown, in the form of a crested headdress (, ''magaik'')
# Sceptre (, ''thanlyet'')
# Sandals (, ''che nin'')
#
Fly-whisk
__NOTOC__
A fly-whisk (or fly-swish) is a tool that is used to swat flies. A similar device is used as a hand fan in hot tropical climates, sometimes as part of regalia, and is called a ''chowrie'', ''chāmara'', or ''prakirnaka'' in South Asia an ...
, made of yak tail (, ''thamyi yat'')
At his throne, eight princesses anointed the king by pouring specially procured water atop his head, each using a conch bedazzled with gems white solemnly adjuring him in formulae to rule justly. Brahmins then raised a
white umbrella over the king's head. This anointment was repeated by eight pure-blooded Brahmins and eight merchants. Afterward, the king repeated words ascribed to Buddha at birth: "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am peerless in all the world!" and made invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer. The ritual ended with the king taking refuge in the
Three Jewels
In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Its object is typically the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple ...
.
As part of the coronation, prisoners were released. The king and his pageant returned to the Palace, and the ceremonial pavilions were dismantled and cast into the river. Seven days after the ceremony, the king and members of the royal family made an inaugural procession, circling the city moat on a gilt state barge, amid festive music and spectators.
Installation of the Crown Prince
''Uparājabhiseka'' () – the Installation of the ''
Uparaja
Uparaja is a noble title reserved for the viceroy in India and the Buddhist dynasties in Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand, as well as some of their minor tributary kingdoms. It is ultimately from Sanskrit उपराज ''upa- rāja'' equivalent ...
'' (Crown Prince), in Burmese ''Einshe Min'' (), was one of the most important rituals in the king's reign. The Installation Ceremony took place in the ''Byedaik'' (Privy Council). The Crown Prince was invested, received appendages and insignias, and was bestowed a multitude of gifts. The king also formally appointed a retinue of household staff to oversee the Prince's public and private affairs. Afterward, the Crown Prince was paraded to his new Palace, commiserate with his new rank. Preparations for a royal wedding with a princess, specially groomed to become the new king's consort, then commenced.
Feeding of the first betel
''Kun U Khun Mingala'' () – the Feeding of the First Betel ceremony was held about 75 days after the birth of a prince or princess to bolster the newborn child's health, prosperity and beauty. The ceremony involved the feeding of
betel
Betel (''Piper betle'') is a species of flowering plant in the pepper family Piperaceae, native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious vine, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plants are cultivated for their lea ...
, mixed with camphor and other ingredients. An appointed official () arranged the rituals preceding the ceremony. These rituals included a specific set of offerings to the Buddha, indigenous spirits (''
yokkaso
Yokkaso (, MLCTS: ''rukhka.cui:''; Pali: '; Sanskrit: '), also known as Thitpin Saunt Nat (; ), are Burmese ''nat (spirit), nats'' (spirits) who serve as guardians of the trees.
They are related to ''Bhummaso'' (; bhūmideva), spirits that inhabi ...
'', ''
akathaso
''Akathaso'' () are Burmese '' nats'' (spirits) who inhabit the tops of trees and serve as guardians of the sky.
They are related to '' Thitpin Saunt Nat'' and '' Myay Saunt Nat,''who respectively live on the trunks and roots of the trees. ''Myay ...
'', ''
bhummaso
Myay Saunt Nat (; lit. "Earth Guardian Spirit"), are Burmese '' nats'' (spirits) who inhabit the roots of trees and serve as guardians of the earth.
They are related to Thitpin Saunt Nat and '' Akathaso'' who respectively live on the tree trunks ...
'', etc.), Guardians of the Sasana, and to the parents and grandparents of the child, all of which were arranged in the infant's chamber. Additional offerings were made to the Hundred ''
Phi
Phi ( ; uppercase Φ, lowercase φ or ϕ; ''pheî'' ; Modern Greek: ''fi'' ) is the twenty-first letter of the Greek alphabet.
In Archaic and Classical Greek (c. 9th to 4th century BC), it represented an aspirated voiceless bilabial plos ...
'' (), a group of 100 Siamese spirits headed by
Nandi
Nandi may refer to:
People
* Nandy (surname), Indian surname
* Nandi (mother of Shaka) (1760–1827), daughter of Bhebe of the Langeni tribe
* Onandi Lowe (born 1974), Jamaican footballer nicknamed Nandi
* Nandi Bushell (born 2010), South Afr ...
(), personified by a Brahmin figure made of
kusa grass
''Desmostachya bipinnata'', commonly known as halfa grass, big cordgrass, and salt reed-grass, is an Old World perennial grass, long known and used in human history. The grass is tall, tufted, leafy, perennial grass, branching from the base, erec ...
, which was ceremonially fed scoops of cooked rice with the left hand.
Naming ceremony
''
Nāmakaraṇa
Namakarana () is the naming ceremony in Hinduism and a samskara (rite of passage) to name a baby.Pandey, R.B. (1962, reprint 2003). ''The Hindu Sacraments (Saṁskāra)'' in S. Radhakrishnan (ed.) ''The Cultural Heritage of India'', Vol.II, Kolk ...
'' () – the naming ceremony took place 100 days after the birth of a prince or princess. Food was also offered for the dignitaries and entertainers in attendance. The infant's name was inscribed on a gold plate or on
palm leaf
The Arecaceae () is a family (biology), family of perennial plant, perennial, flowering plants in the Monocotyledon, monocot order Arecales. Their growth form can be climbing palm, climbers, shrubs, tree-like and stemless plants, all commonly k ...
. The night before the ceremony, a ''
pwe'' was held for the attendees. The dawn of the ceremony, Buddhist monks delivered a sermon to the court. Afterward, at the Chief Queen's apartment, the infant was seated on a divan with the Chief Queen, with respective attendees from the royal court seated according to rank. A Minister of the Interior then presided over ceremonial offerings () made to the
Triple Gem
In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Its object is typically the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple ...
, the 11 ''
deva
Deva may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters
* Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster
* Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...
'' headed by
Thagyamin
Thagyamin (, ; from Sanskrit , ) is the highest-ranking Nat (deity), nat (deity) in traditional Buddhism in Myanmar, Burmese Buddhist belief. Considered as the king of Heaven, he is the Burmese adaptation of the Hindu deities Indra.
Etymology ...
, 9 Hindu deities, indigenous ''
nat
Nat or NAT may refer to:
Computing
* Network address translation (NAT), in computer networking
Chemistry, biology, and medicine
* Natural antisense transcript, an RNA transcript in a cell
* N-acetyltransferase, an enzyme; also NAT1, NAT2, et ...
'', and the 100 ''Phi''. A protective prayer was then recited. After the prayer, a ''pyinnyashi'' prepared and 'fed' Nandi. At the auspicious moment calculated by astrologers, the name of the infant was read out thrice by the royal herald. Afterward, another royal herald recited an inventory of presents offered by the dignitaries in attendance. At the closing of the ceremony, a feast ensued, with attendees fed in the order of precedence. Offerings to the Buddha were shuttled to the pagodas, and those to Nandi, to the sacrificial Brahmins.
Royal Ploughing Ceremony
''Lehtun Mingala'' () – the Royal Ploughing Ceremony was an annual festival of breaking ground with ploughs in the royal fields east of the royal capital, to ensure sufficient rainfall for the year by propitiating the Moekhaung Nat, who was believed to control rain. The ceremony was traditionally linked to an event in
Gotama Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),*
*
*
was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
's life. During
King Suddhodana's royal ploughing of the fields, the infant Buddha rose to stand, sat cross-legged and began to meditate, underneath the shade of a
rose apple tree.
The ceremony was held at the beginning of June, at the break of the southwest monsoon. For the ceremony, the king, clad in state robes (a ''
paso'' with the peacock emblem (''daungyut'')), a long silk surcoat or tunic encrusted with jewels, a spire-like crown (''tharaphu''), and 24 strings of the ''
salwe
''Salwe'' (, ) are issues for Burmese Order (decoration), orders. A ''salwe'' is a shoulder-belt formed with metal chains, normally fashioned in gold or silver, which are fastened in four places, in shields or bosses, and worn over the shoulder ...
'' across his chest, and a gold plate or frontlet over his forehead) and his audience made a procession to the ''leya'' (royal fields). At the ''ledawgyi'', a specially designated plot of land, milk-white oxen were attached to royal ploughs covered with gold leaf, stood ready for ploughing by ministers, princes and the kings. The oxen were decorated with gold and crimson bands, reins bedecked with rubies and diamonds, and heavy gold tassels hung from the gilded horns. The king initiated the ploughing, and shared this duty among himself, ministers and the princes. After the ceremonial ploughing of the ''ledawgyi'' was complete, festivities sprung up throughout the royal capital.
Head-washing ceremony
At
Thingyan
Thingyan (/sɛŋkəmɑ/ ; , Old Mon language, Old Mon: သင်ကြာန် ), also known as the Myanmar New Year, is a festival that usually occurs in middle of April. Thingyan marks the transition from the old year to the new one, based on ...
and at the end of the
Buddhist lent, the king's head was ceremonially washed with water from Gaungsay Gyun (lit. Head Washing Island) between Martaban and
Moulmein
Mawlamyine (also spelled Mawlamyaing; , ; ; , ), formerly Moulmein, is the fourth-largest city in Myanmar (Burma), ''World Gazetteer'' southeast of Yangon and south of Thaton, at the mouth of Thanlwin (Salween) River. Mawlamyine was an ancien ...
, near the mouth of the
Salween River
The Salween is a Southeast Asian river, about long, flowing from the Tibetan Plateau south into the Andaman Sea. The Salween flows primarily within southwest China and eastern Myanmar, with a short section forming the border of Myanmar and Tha ...
. After the
Second Anglo-Burmese War
The Second Anglo-Burmese War or the Second Burma War ( ; 5 April 185220 January 1853) was the second of the three wars fought between the Burmese Empire and British Empire during the 19th century. The war resulted in a British victory with more ...
(which resulted in Gaungsay Gyun falling under British possession), purified water from
Irrawaddy River
The Irrawaddy River (, , Ayeyarwady) is the principal river of Myanmar, running through the centre of the country. Myanmar’s most important commercial waterway, it is about 1,350 miles (2,170 km) long. Originating from the confluence of the ...
was instead procured. This ceremony also preceded the
earboring, headdressing, and marriage ceremonies of the royal family.
Obeisance ceremony
The
Obeisance ceremony was a grand ceremony held at the Great Audience Hall thrice a year where tributary princes and courtiers laid tribute, paid homage to their benefactor, the Konbaung king, and swore their allegiance to the monarchy. The ceremony was held 3 times a year:
# ''Hnit Thit Gadaw'' () – Beginning of the
Burmese New Year
Thingyan (/sɛŋkəmɑ/ ; , Old Mon: သင်ကြာန် ), also known as the Myanmar New Year, is a festival that usually occurs in middle of April. Thingyan marks the transition from the old year to the new one, based on the traditional M ...
(April)
# ''Wa-win Gadaw'' () – Beginning of the
Buddhist Lent (June or July) – required the attendance of princes, ministers and city officials
# ''Wa-gyut Gadaw'' () –
End of the Buddhist Lent (October) – required the attendance of provincial governors and tributary princes (''sawbwa'')
During this ceremony, the king was seated at the Lion Throne, along with the chief queen, to his right. The Crown Prince was seated immediately before the throne in a cradle-like seat, followed by princes of the blood (min nyi min tha). Constituting the audience were courtiers and dignitaries from vassal states, who were seated according to rank, known in Burmese as ''Neya Nga Thwe'' ():
# ''Taw Neya'' ();
# ''Du Neya'' ();
# ''Sani'' ();
# ''Atwin Bawaw'' ();
# ''Apyin Bawaw'' ()
There, the audience paid obeisance to the monarch and renewed their allegiance to the monarch. Women, barring the chief queen, were not permitted to be seen during these ceremonies. Lesser queens, ministers' wives and other officials were seated in a room behind the throne: the queens were seated in the centre within the railing surrounding the flight of steps, while the wives of ministers and others sat in the space without.
Ancestor worship
Throughout the Konbaung dynasty, the royal family performed
ancestral rites to honour their immediate ancestors. These rites were performed at the thrice a year at the Zetawunsaung (
Jetavana
Jetavana () was one of the most famous of the Buddhist monasteries or viharas in India (present-day Uttar Pradesh). It was the second vihara donated to Gautama Buddha after the Venuvana in Rajgir. The monastery was given to him by his chi ...
Hall or "Hall of Victory"), which housed the Goose Throne (), immediately preceding the Obeisance Ceremony. On a platform in a room to the west of hall, the king and members of the royal family paid obeisance to images of monarchs and consorts of the Konbaung dynasty. Offerings and
Pali
Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...
prayers from a book of odes were also made to the images. The images, which stood tall, were made of solid gold. Images were only made for Konbaung kings at their death (if he died on the throne) or for Konbaung queens (if she died while her consort was on throne), but not of a king who died after deposition or a queen who survived her husband. Items used by the deceased personage (e.g. sword, spear, betel box) were preserved along with the associated image. After the British conquest of
Upper Burma
Upper Myanmar ( or , also called Upper Burma) is one of two geographic regions in Myanmar, the other being Lower Myanmar. Located in the country's centre and north stretches, Upper Myanmar encompasses six inland states and regions, including ...
, 11 images fell into the hands of the Superintendent at the
Governor's Residence, Bengal, where they were melted down.
Funerals
When a king died, his royal white umbrella was broken and the great drum and gong at the palace's bell tower (at the eastern gate of the palace), was struck. It was custom for members of the royal family, including the king, to be cremated: their ashes were put into a velvet bag and thrown into the river. King
Mindon Min
Mindon Min (, ; 1808 – 1878), born Maung Lwin, was the penultimate king of Burma (Myanmar) from 1853 to 1878. He was one of the most popular and revered kings of Burma because of his role in the Fifth Buddhist Council. Under his half brothe ...
was the first to break tradition; his remains were not cremated, but instead were buried intact, according to his wishes, at the place where his tomb now stands. Before his burial, the King Mindon's body was laid in state before his throne at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors).
Foundation sacrifice
The Foundation Sacrifice was a Burmese practice whereby human victims known as ''
myosade'' () were ceremonially sacrificed by burial during the foundation of a royal capital, to propitiate and appease the
guardian spirits. to ensure impregnability of the capital city. The victims were crushed to death underneath a massive teak post erected near each gateway, and at the four corners of the city walls, to render the city secure and impregnable. Although this practice contradicted the fundamental tenets of Buddhism, it was in alignment with prevailing animistic beliefs, which dictated that the spirits of persons who suffered violent deaths became ''nat''s (spirits) and protective and possessive of their death sites. The preferred sites for such executions were the city's corners and the gates, the most vulnerable defence points.
The Konbaung monarchs followed ancient precedents and traditions to found the new royal city. Brahmins were tasked with planning these sacrificial ceremonies and determining the auspicious day according to astrological calculations and the signs of individuals best suited for sacrifice. Usually, victims were selected from a spectrum of social classes, or unfortuitiously apprehended against will during the day of the sacrifice. Women in the latter stages of pregnancy were preferred, as the sacrifice would yield two guardian spirits instead of one.
Such sacrifices took place at the foundation of Wunbe In Palace in
Ava
Ava or AVA may refer to:
Places Asia and Oceania
* Ava Kingdom, in upper Burma from 1364 to 1555
** Inwa, formerly Ava, the capital of Ava Kingdom
** Earl of Ava, a British colonial earldom in Burma
* Ava, Iran, Gilan Province, a village
* Iva ...
in 1676 and may have taken place at the foundation of Mandalay in 1857. Royal court officials at the time claimed that the tradition was dispensed altogether, with flowers and fruit offered in lieu of human victims.
Burmese chronicles
The royal chronicles of Myanmar ( ; also known as Burmese chronicles) are detailed and continuous chronicles of the Burmese monarchy, monarchy of Myanmar (Burma). The chronicles were written on different media such as parabaik paper, palm-leaf ...
and contemporary records only make mention of large jars of oil buried at the identified locations, which was, by tradition, to ascertain whether the spirits would continue to protect the city (i.e., so long as the oil remained intact, the spirits were serving their duty). Shwe Yoe's ''The Burman'' describes 52 men, women and children buried, with 3 buried under the post near each of the twelve gates of the city walls, one at each corner of those walls, one at each corner of the teak stockade, one under each of the four entrances to the Palace, and four under the Lion Throne.
Taw Sein Ko's ''Annual Report for 1902–03'' for the
Archaeological Survey of India
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is an Indian government agency that is responsible for archaeological research and the conservation and preservation of cultural historical monuments in the country. It was founded in 1861 by Alexander ...
mentions only four victims buried at the corners of the city walls.
Devotional rituals
Brahmins at the Konbaung court regularly performed a variety of grand devotional rituals to indigenous spirits (''nat'') and Hindu deities. The following were the most important devotional cults:
*
Ganesha
Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...
(''Maha Peinne'' in Burmese) – During the Burmese month of
Nadaw
Nadaw (; also spelt Natdaw) is the ninth month of the traditional Burmese calendar.
Festivals and observances
*Mahagiri Nat Festival, Mount Popa
*Literature and Arts Festival ()
*Pagoda festivals
** Botahtaung Pagoda Festival (Yangon)
Nadaw sy ...
(November to December), a festival for Ganesha, the god of prudence and good policy, was held. Grain first reaped from the royal fields was sent to the
Mahamuni Buddha Temple
The Mahamuni Buddha Temple (, ) is a Buddhist temple and major pilgrimage site, located southwest of Mandalay, Myanmar (Burma). The Mahamuni Image () is enshrined in this temple, and originally came from Arakan. It is highly venerated in Burma an ...
as an offering to Ganesha, in three huge containers in the shape of a buffalo, bullock and prawn, in which paddy, millet, and bulrush millet were respectively placed. Ganesha, mounted on a peacock, was placed on a ceremonial procession and was then brought before the king, who after paying homage, scattered pieces of silver and clothes among the poor. Ganesha occupied a prominent place in royal ceremonies, especially as he was considered a guardian deity of the elephants. Offerings to Ganesha, made in the Burmese month of
Tazaungmon
Tazaungmon (; also spelt Tazaungmone) is the eighth month of the traditional Burmese calendar.
Festivals and observances
* Kahtein ( Thadingyut - Tazaungmon)
*Full moon of Tazaungmon
** Tazaungdaing Festival of Lights ()
***Matho Thingan Robe We ...
were established during Bodawpaya's reign.
* ''Phaya Ko Zu'' (, lit. "Nine Deities") – This was a devotional rite performed by Khettara Brahmins. The deities referenced were either Buddhist: Buddha and the 8
arahat
In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
s, or non-Buddhist: 5
Hindu
Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
deities, including
Candi and Ganesha, and 4 ''nat''s.
*
Skanda () – King
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya (, ; ; 11 March 1745 – 5 June 1819) was the sixth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was procl ...
reformed the annual ceremonial procession to honour Ganesha to instead honour Skanda, the god of war (and a son of
Shiva
Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
and Candi), following the advice of a Brahmin from
Benares
Varanasi (, also Benares, Banaras ) or Kashi, is a city on the Ganges, Ganges river in North India, northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hinduism, Hindu world.*
*
*
* The city ...
. This procession was held in the Burmese month of
Tabaung
Tabaung () is the twelfth and final month of the traditional Burmese calendar.
Festivals and observances
*Tabaung Festival ( Magha Puja) - full moon of Tabaung
* Sand Pagoda Festival ()
*28 Pagoda Parade Festival, Pyinmana Township
*Pagoda fest ...
. Skanda was closely linked with a deity called Citrabali-mara (Cittarapali-mar
, both of whom were connected to rituals mentioned in ''Rajamattan'', a standard reference for ceremonies at the royal court compiled during Bodawphaya's reign.
* Hindu deities: Candi (Canni),
Indra
Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes
Indra is the m ...
(
Thagyamin
Thagyamin (, ; from Sanskrit , ) is the highest-ranking Nat (deity), nat (deity) in traditional Buddhism in Myanmar, Burmese Buddhist belief. Considered as the king of Heaven, he is the Burmese adaptation of the Hindu deities Indra.
Etymology ...
),
Shiva
Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
,
Vishnu
Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
,
Asuras
Asuras () are a class of beings in Indian religions, and later Persian and Turkic mythology. They are described as power-seeking beings related to the more benevolent Deva (Hinduism), Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhism, ...
and the 4
Lokapala
(, ), Sanskrit, Pāli, and Lhasa_Tibetan, Tibetan for "guardian of the world", has different uses depending on whether it is found in a Hinduism, Hindu or Buddhism, Buddhist context. In Hinduism, ''lokapāla'' refers to the Guardians of the ...
– These deities were placed at specific locations, at the entrances of the capital city, the royal palace, or in temples, to ward off evil.
* Other spirits (''nat''): Planets, Sky, Sun, Moon, ''Hon'' (the fire spirit)
Socioeconomic Governance
Social classes
During the Konbaung dynasty, Burmese society was highly stratified. Loosely modelled on the four
Hindu ''varna''s, Konbaung society was divided into four general social classes () by descent:
# Rulers () or ''
Khattiya'' ()
# Ritualists () or ''
Brahmana
The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedas, Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Sama, Yajurveda, Yajur, and Athar ...
'' ()
# Merchants () or ''
Vessa'' ()
# Commoners () or ''
Tudda'' ()
Society also distinguished between the free and slaves (), who were indebted persons or
prisoners of war
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
Belligerents hold prisoners of war for a ...
(including those brought back from military campaigns in
Arakan
Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
,
Ayuthaya, and
Manipur
Manipur () is a state in northeastern India with Imphal as its capital. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically t ...
), but could belong to one of the four classes. There was also distinction between taxpayers and non-taxpayers. Tax-paying commoners were called ''athi'' (), whereas non-taxpaying individuals, usually affiliated to the royal court or under government service, were called ''ahmuhtan'' ().
Outside of hereditary positions, there were two primary paths to influence: joining the military () and joining the
Buddhist
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
Sangha
Sangha or saṃgha () is a term meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community". In a political context, it was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used b ...
in the monasteries.
Sumptuary laws
Sumptuary law
Sumptuary laws (from Latin ) are laws that regulate consumption. '' Black's Law Dictionary'' defines them as "Laws made for the purpose of restraining luxury or extravagance, particularly against inordinate expenditures for apparel, food, furnitu ...
s called ''yazagaing'' dictated life and consumption for Burmese subjects in the Konbaung kingdom, everything from the style of one's house to clothing suitable to one's social standing from regulations concerning funerary ceremonies and the coffin to be used to usage of various speech forms based on rank and social status. In particular, sumptuary laws in the royal capital were exceedingly strict and the most elaborate in character.
For instance, sumptuary laws forbade ordinary Burmese subjects to build houses of stone or brick and dictated the number of tiers on the ornamental spired roof (called ''
pyatthat
Pyatthat (, ; from Sanskrit ; ; also spelt pyathat) is the name of a multistaged roof, with an odd number of tiers (from three to seven). The pyatthat is commonly incorporated into Burmese Buddhist and royal architecture (e.g., kyaungs, palac ...
'') allowed above one's residence—the royal palace's Great Audience Hall and the 4 main gates of the royal capital, as well as monasteries, were allowed 9 tiers while those of the most powerful tributary princes (''sawbwa'') were permitted 7, at most.
Sumptuary laws ordained 5 types of funerals and rites accorded to each: the king, royal family members, holders of ministerial offices, merchants and those who possessed titles, and peasants (who received no rites at death).
Sumptuary regulations regarding dress and ornamentation were carefully observed. Designs with the
peacock
Peafowl is a common name for two bird species of the genus '' Pavo'' and one species of the closely related genus '' Afropavo'' within the tribe Pavonini of the family Phasianidae (the pheasants and their allies). Male peafowl are referred t ...
insignia were strictly reserved for the royal family and long-tailed hip-length jackets () and surcoats were reserved for officials.
Velvet
Velvet is a type of woven fabric with a dense, even pile (textile), pile that gives it a distinctive soft feel. Historically, velvet was typically made from silk. Modern velvet can be made from silk, linen, cotton, wool, synthetic fibers, silk ...
sandals () were worn exclusively by royals.
Gold
Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
anklets were worn only by the royal children.
Silk
Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...
cloth,
brocade
Brocade () is a class of richly decorative shuttle (weaving), shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and sometimes with gold and silver threads. The name, related to the same root as the word "broccoli", comes from Italian langua ...
d with gold and silver flowers and animal figures were only permitted to be worn by members of the royal family and ministers' wives. Adornment with jewels and precious stones was similarly regulated. Usage of ''hinthapada'' (), a
vermilion
Vermilion (sometimes vermillion) is a color family and pigment most often used between antiquity and the 19th century from the powdered mineral cinnabar (a form of mercury sulfide). It is synonymous with red orange, which often takes a moder ...
dye made from
cinnabar
Cinnabar (; ), or cinnabarite (), also known as ''mercurblende'' is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of Mercury sulfide, mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining mercury (element), elemental mercury and is t ...
was regulated.
Demography

Throughout the Konbaung dynasty, cultural integration continued. For the first time in history, the
Burmese language
Burmese (; ) is a Tibeto-Burman languages, Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Myanmar, where it is the official language, lingua franca, and the native language of the Bamar people, Bamar, the country's largest ethnic group. Burmese dialects are a ...
and culture came to predominate the entire
Irrawaddy valley, with the
Mon language
The Mon language, formerly known as Peguan and Talaing, is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Mon people. Mon, like the related Khmer language, but unlike most languages in mainland Southeast Asia, is not tonal. The Mon language is a recogn ...
and
ethnicity
An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they Collective consciousness, collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, ...
completely eclipsed by 1830. The nearer Shan principalities adopted more lowland norms.

Captives from various military campaigns in their hundreds and thousands were brought back to the kingdom and resettled as hereditary servants to royalty and nobility or dedicated to
pagodas
A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Thailand, Cambodia, Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist, but sometime ...
and temples; these captives added new knowledge and skills to Burmese society and enriched Burmese culture. They were encouraged to marry into the host community thus enriching the
gene pool
The gene pool is the set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species.
Description
A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survi ...
as well. Captives from
Manipur
Manipur () is a state in northeastern India with Imphal as its capital. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically t ...
formed the cavalry called ''Kathè myindat'' (Cassay Horse) and also ''Kathè a hmyauk tat'' (Cassay Artillery) in the royal Burmese army. Even captured French soldiers, led by
Chevalier Milard
Pierre de Milard (often referred to as Chevalier Milard, also spelled Chevalier Millard; 1736–1778) was a French Navy officer, who became a senior officer and noble in the Royal Burmese Armed Forces. He had a key role in supporting the Burmese ...
, were forced into the Burmese army. The incorporated French troops with their guns and muskets played a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They became an elite corps, which was to play a role in the Burmese battles against the
Siamese (attacks and capture of
Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to:
* Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767
** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom
* Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
from 1760 to 1765) and the
Manchus
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) an ...
(battles against the Chinese armies of the
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China pr ...
from 1766 to 1769).
Muslim
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
eunuchs from
Arakan
Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
also served in the Konbaung court.
A small community of foreign scholars, missionaries and merchants also lived in Konbaung society. Besides
mercenaries
A mercenary is a private individual who joins an War, armed conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military. Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rath ...
and adventurers who had offered their services since the arrival of the
Portuguese in the 16th century, a few Europeans served as
ladies-in-waiting
A lady-in-waiting (alternatively written lady in waiting) or court lady is a female personal assistant at a court, attending on a royal woman or a high-ranking noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady-in-waiting was often a noblewoman but ...
to the last queen
Supayalat
Supayalat (, ; 13 December 1859 – 24 November 1925), also spelt Suphayalat, was the last queen of Burma who reigned in Mandalay (1878–1885), born to King Mindon Min and Queen of Alenandaw (; also known as Hsinbyumashin or Lady of the White Elep ...
in
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. It is located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 mi) north of Yangon. In 2014, the city had a population of 1,225,553.
Mandalay was founded in 1857 by Ki ...
, a missionary established a school attended by
Mindon's several sons including the last king
Thibaw, and an
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
had served as a king's minister at
Amarapura
Amarapura (, , ; also spelt as Ummerapoora) is a former capital of Myanmar, and now a township of Mandalay city. Amarapura is bounded by the Irrawaddy river in the west, Chanmyathazi Township in the north, and the ancient capital site of Ava ...
.
Among the most visible non-
Burmans
The Bamar people (Burmese language, Burmese: ဗမာလူမျိုး, ''ba. ma lu myui:'' ) (formerly known as Burmese people or Burmans) are a Sino-Tibetan-speaking ethnic group native to Myanmar (formerly known as Burma). With an esti ...
of the royal court were Brahmins. They typically originated from one of four locales:
*
Manipur
Manipur () is a state in northeastern India with Imphal as its capital. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically t ...
– acquired with the conquest of Manipur; perhaps from Bengal, since Manipur was Hinduised by Bengali Brahmins in the 1700s
*
Arakan
Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
– acquired with the conquest of Arakan in 1785 by King
Bodawpaya
Bodawpaya (, ; ; 11 March 1745 – 5 June 1819) was the sixth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was procl ...
's son,
Thado Minsaw
Thado Minsaw ( ; 15 June 1762 – 9 April 1808), also known as Shwedaung Min (), was heir-apparent of Burma from 1783 to 1808, during the reign of his father King Bodawpaya of Konbaung dynasty. As Prince of Shwedaung and Dabayin, he was e ...
*
Sagaing
Sagaing (, ) is a town in the Sagaing Region of Myanmar. It is located on the Irrawaddy River, to the south-west of Mandalay on the opposite bank of the river. Sagaing, with its numerous Buddhist monasteries, is an important religious and ...
– long-established lines of Brahmins at Burman and Mon royal courts, who traced their origins to ninth century
Sri Ksetra
Sri Ksetra (, , ; Sanskrit: श्री क्षेत्र, Htin Aung, Maung (1970). ''Burmese History before 1287: A Defence of the Chronicles.'' Oxford: The Asoka Society, 8 - 10. or 'Field of Glory'), located along the Irrawaddy River at p ...
or 14th century Sagaing
*
Benares
Varanasi (, also Benares, Banaras ) or Kashi, is a city on the Ganges, Ganges river in North India, northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hinduism, Hindu world.*
*
*
* The city ...
– Indian Brahmins from Benares who arrived in upper Burma between the late 1700s to early 1800s.
Literature and arts
The evolution and growth of
Burmese literature
The literature of Myanmar () spans over a millennium. The Burmese language, unlike other Southeast Asian languages (e.g. Thai, Khmer), adopted words primarily from Pāli rather than from Sanskrit. In addition, Burmese literature tends to re ...
and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male
literacy rate
Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Foreign observers such as
Michael Symes
Michael Symes (born 31 October 1983) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker.
He started his career as a trainee with Everton, playing in attack with future England international Wayne Rooney. He moved to Brad ...
remarked on widespread literacy among commoners, from peasants to
watermen
A waterman is a river worker who transfers passengers across and along city centre rivers and estuaries in the United Kingdom and its colonies. Most notable are those on the River Thames and River Medway in England, but other rivers such as the ...
.
The Siamese captives carried off from Ayutthaya as part of the
Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) went on to have an outsize influence on traditional Burmese theatre and dance. In 1789, a Burmese royal commission consisting of Princes and Ministers was charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. With the help of Siamese artists captured from Ayutthaya in 1767, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the Enao, the Siamese version of Javanese
Panji tales into Burmese ''
Yama Zattaw'' and ''Enaung Zattaw''. One classical Siamese dance, called ''Yodaya Aka'' (lit. Ayutthaya-style dance) is considered one of the most delicate of all traditional
Burmese dances.
During the Konbaung period, the techniques of
European painting
The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from classical antiquity, antiquity until the present time. Until the mid-19th century it was primarily concerned with Representational art, representational ...
like
linear perspective
Linear or point-projection perspective () is one of two types of graphical projection perspective in the graphic arts; the other is parallel projection. Linear perspective is an approximate representation, generally on a flat surface, of ...
,
chiaroscuro
In art, chiaroscuro ( , ; ) is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to ach ...
and
sfumato
Sfumato ( , ; , i.e. 'blurred') is a painting technique for softening the transition between colours, mimicking an area beyond what the human eye is focusing on, or the out-of-focus plane. It is one of the canonical painting modes of the Renaissan ...
became more established amongst Burmese painting style. Temple paintings from this period utilized techniques such as by casting shadows and distance haze on traditional Burmese styles.
[ The Konbaung period also developed ''parabaik'' ]folding-book manuscripts
Folding-book manuscripts are a type of writing material historically used in Mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in the areas of present-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. They are known as ''parabaik'' in Burmese, ''samut thai'' in Thai o ...
styles that recorded court and royal acitivies by painting on white parakbaik.
In the earlier part of the dynasty between 1789 and 1853, the Amarapura style of Buddha image statuary art developed. Artisans used a unique style using wood gild with gold leaf and red lacquer. The rounder faced image of the Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),*
*
*
was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...
from this period may have been influenced by the capture of the Mahamuni Image from Arakan
Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
. After Mindon Min
Mindon Min (, ; 1808 – 1878), born Maung Lwin, was the penultimate king of Burma (Myanmar) from 1853 to 1878. He was one of the most popular and revered kings of Burma because of his role in the Fifth Buddhist Council. Under his half brothe ...
moved the capital to Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. It is located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 mi) north of Yangon. In 2014, the city had a population of 1,225,553.
Mandalay was founded in 1857 by Ki ...
, a new Mandalay style of Buddha images developed, depicting a new curly-haired Buddha image and using alabaster
Alabaster is a mineral and a soft Rock (geology), rock used for carvings and as a source of plaster powder. Archaeologists, geologists, and the stone industry have different definitions for the word ''alabaster''. In archaeology, the term ''alab ...
and bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...
as materials. This later style would be retained through the British colonial period.
Architecture
Burmese dynasties had a long history of building regularly planned cities along the Irawaddy valley between the 14th to 19th century. Town planning in pre-modern Burma reached its climax during the Konbaung period with cities such as Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. It is located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 mi) north of Yangon. In 2014, the city had a population of 1,225,553.
Mandalay was founded in 1857 by Ki ...
. Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya (, ; also spelled Alaunghpaya or Alaung-Phra; 11 May 1760) was the founder and first emperor of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. By the time of his death from illness during his Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60), campaign in Siam, this ...
directed many town planning initiatives. He built many small fortified towns with major defences. One of these, Rangoon
Yangon, formerly romanized as Rangoon, is the capital of the Yangon Region and the largest city of Myanmar. Yangon was the List of capitals of Myanmar, capital of Myanmar until 2005 and served as such until 2006, when the State Peace and Dev ...
, was founded in 1755 as a fortress and sea harbor. The city had an irregular plan with stockade
A stockade is an enclosure of palisades and tall walls, made of logs placed side by side vertically, with the tops sharpened as a defensive wall.
Etymology
''Stockade'' is derived from the French word ''estocade''. The French word was derived f ...
s made of teak logs on a ground rampart
Rampart may refer to:
* Rampart (fortification), a defensive wall or bank around a castle, fort or settlement
Rampart may also refer to:
* LAPD Rampart Division, a division of the Los Angeles Police Department
** Rampart scandal, a blanket ter ...
. Rangoon had six city gates with each gate flanked by massive brick towers with typical merlon
A merlon is the solid, upright section of a battlement (a crenellated parapet) in medieval architecture or fortifications. Merlons are sometimes pierced by narrow, vertical embrasures, or tooth-like slits designed for observation and fire. The sp ...
s with cross-shaped embrasure
An embrasure (or crenel or crenelle; sometimes called gunhole in the domain of Age of Gunpowder, gunpowder-era architecture) is the opening in a battlement between two raised solid portions (merlons). Alternatively, an embrasure can be a sp ...
s. The stupa of Shwedagon
The Shwedagon Pagoda (, ; ), officially named ''Shwedagon Zedi Daw'' (, , ), and also known as the Great Dagon Pagoda and the Golden Pagoda, is a gilded stupa located in Yangon, Myanmar.
The Shwedagon is the most sacred Buddhism, Buddhist pagoda ...
, Sule and Botataung were located outside the city walls. The city had main roads paved with bricks and drains along the sides.
This period also saw a proliferation of stupas and temples with developments in stucco techniques. Wooden monasteries of this period intricately decorated with wood carvings of the Jataka Tales
The ''Jātaka'' (Sanskrit for "Birth-Related" or "Birth Stories") are a voluminous body of literature native to the Indian subcontinent which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. Jataka stories we ...
are one of the more prominent distinctive examples of traditional Burmese architecture that survive to the present day.
Religion
Monastic and lay elites around the Konbaung kings, particularly from Bodawpaya's reign, launched a major reformation of Burmese intellectual life and monastic organisation and practice known as the Sudhamma Reformation. It led to, amongst other things, Burma's first proper state histories.
Rulers
Note: Naungdawgyi was the eldest brother of Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya who was the grandfather of Bagyidaw who was Mindon's elder uncle. They were known by these names to posterity, although the formal titles at their coronation by custom ran to some length in Pali
Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...
; ''Mintayagyi paya'' (Lord Great King) was the equivalent of Your/His Majesty whereas ''Hpondawgyi paya'' (Lord Great Glory) would be used by the royal family.
Family tree
Pretenders
After the abolition of the monarchy, the title of Royal Householder of the Konbaung dynasty nominally passed to Myat Phaya Lat
Princess Myat Phaya Lat (, ; 4 October 1883 – 4 April 1956) was a Burmese royal princess and most senior member of the Royal House of Konbaung. She was the Royal Householder after the death of her father, King Thibaw while in exile in 1916 ...
, Thibaw's second daughter, as the King's eldest daughter renounced her royal titles to be with an Indian commoner.
Thibaw's third daughter Myat Phaya Galay
Princess Myat Phaya Galay (; 25 April 1887 – 3 March 1936) was a Burmese royal princess and senior member of the Royal House of Konbaung. She was the fourth daughter of the last ruling king of Burma, King Thibaw, and his queen Supayalat.
Biog ...
returned to Burma and sought the return of the throne from the British in the 1920s. Her eldest son Taw Phaya Gyi
Prince George Taw Phaya Gyi (; 6 May 1922 – 9 April 1948) was a Burmese prince and heir to the defunct throne of Burma (abolished in 1885). He was the eldest son of Princess Myat Phaya Galay and the grandson of King Thibaw and Queen Supa ...
was taken by Imperial Japan
The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From Japan–Kor ...
during the Second World War for his potential as a puppet king. Japan's efforts failed due to Taw Phaya Gyi's distaste of the Japanese and his assassination in 1948 by Communist insurgents.
After the death of Myat Phaya Lat, her grandson-in-law Taw Phaya
Prince Edward Taw Phaya (; also known as Tun Aung, 22 March 1924 – 12 January 2019) was the Pretender to the Throne of Burma (abolished in 1885). He was the second son of Princess Myat Phaya Galay, the fourth daughter of King Thibaw and Queen Sup ...
became the nominal Royal Householder. Taw Phaya was the son of Myat Phaya Galay, the brother of Taw Phaya Gyi and the husband of Myat Phaya Lat's granddaughter Hteik Su Gyi Phaya.
Upon Taw Phaya's death in 2019, it is unclear who serves as the Royal Householder. Soe Win Soe Win is the name of:
* Soe Win (prime minister) (1947–2007), Prime Minister of Burma
* Soe Win (general), deputy commander-in-chief of the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces)
* Soe Win (minister) (born 1938), Minister for Planning and Finance of ...
, the eldest son of Taw Phaya Gyi is assumed to be the Royal Householder as there is little public information about Taw Phaya's children.
See also
* History of Burma
The history of Myanmar ( ) covers the period from the time of first-known human settlements 13,000 years ago to the present day. The earliest inhabitants of recorded history were a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people who established the Pyu city-sta ...
Citations
Notes
References
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External links
Forty Years in Burma
John Ebenezer Marks, London: Hutchinson & Co., 1917
The Last Queen of Burma
Kenneth Champeon, ''The Irrawaddy
''The Irrawaddy'' () is a news website by the Irrawaddy Publishing Group (IPG), founded in 1990 by Burmese exiles living in Thailand. As a publication produced by former Burmese activists who fled violent crackdowns on anti-military protests in ...
'', July 2003
Before and after the wheel: Pre-colonial and colonial states and transportation in mainland Southeast Asia and West Africa
Michael Charney, ''HumaNetten'' 37 2016.
Ayutthaya and the End of History:Thai Views of Burma Revisted
Min Zin, ''The Irrawaddy
''The Irrawaddy'' () is a news website by the Irrawaddy Publishing Group (IPG), founded in 1990 by Burmese exiles living in Thailand. As a publication produced by former Burmese activists who fled violent crackdowns on anti-military protests in ...
'', August 2000
A rare meeting with the last of Burma's royals
''The Daily Telegraph
''The Daily Telegraph'', known online and elsewhere as ''The Telegraph'', is a British daily broadsheet conservative newspaper published in London by Telegraph Media Group and distributed in the United Kingdom and internationally. It was found ...
'', 26 February 2008
Myanmar's last royal laments a crumbling nation
''Reuters
Reuters ( ) is a news agency owned by Thomson Reuters. It employs around 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists in about 200 locations worldwide writing in 16 languages. Reuters is one of the largest news agencies in the world.
The agency ...
'', 10 March 2008
{{Authority control
Former countries in Burmese history
Dynasties of Burma
Buddhist dynasties
18th century in Burma
19th century in Burma
Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
States and territories established in 1752
States and territories disestablished in 1885
1752 establishments in Asia
1885 disestablishments in Asia
1750s establishments in Burma
1880s disestablishments in Burma
Former monarchies
Former monarchies of Asia