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Sayyed Ala al-Din Hoseyn () (c.1592 5March 1654), better known as Khalifeh Soltan (), and also known as Soltan al-Ulama (), was an
Iranian Iranian () may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Iran ** Iranian diaspora, Iranians living outside Iran ** Iranian architecture, architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia ** Iranian cuisine, cooking traditions and practic ...
statesman and cleric, who served as the
grand vizier Grand vizier (; ; ) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. It was first held by officials in the later Abbasid Caliphate. It was then held in the Ottoman Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Soko ...
of the
Safavid The Guarded Domains of Iran, commonly called Safavid Iran, Safavid Persia or the Safavid Empire, was one of the largest and longest-lasting Iranian empires. It was ruled from 1501 to 1736 by the Safavid dynasty. It is often considered the begi ...
king (''
shah Shāh (; ) is a royal title meaning "king" in the Persian language.Yarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII, no. 1 (1989) Though chiefly associated with the monarchs of Iran, it was also used to refer to the leaders of numerous Per ...
'') Abbas I (r. 1588–1629), the latter's grandson Safi (r. 1629–1642), and Abbas II (r. 1642–1666). A member of a prominent
Sayyid ''Sayyid'' is an honorific title of Hasanid and Husaynid lineage, recognized as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali, Hasan and Husayn ibn Ali, Husayn. The title may also refer ...
family with origins in the royal Marashi family of
Mazandaran Mazandaran Province (; ) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Its capital is the city of Sari, Iran, Sari. Located along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and in the adjacent Central Alborz mountain range and Hyrcanian forests, it is border ...
, Khalifeh Soltan was a well-educated man of letters, who played an important role in the Iranian clergy affairs, and also later in the Safavid administration, when he was appointed as grand vizier in 1623/4. He was, however, in 1632, disgraced and exiled by the ruthless newly-crowned shah Safi. Later, in 1645, Khalifeh Soltan was re-appointed as grand vizier by the latter's son and successor, Abbas II, whom he became a close companion of, and gained considerable influence. Khalifeh Soltan later died in 5 March 1654 in his ancestral homeland of Mazandaran due to illness, and was succeeded by
Mohammad Beg Mohammad Beg (; died 1672), was a Muslim of Armenians, Armenian origin, who served as the List of Safavid Grand Viziers, Grand Vizier of the Safavid king (''shah'') Abbas II of Persia, Abbas II (r. 1642–1666) from 1654 to 1661. Origins Mohamma ...
.


Origins

Khalifeh Soltan's full name was Sayyed Ala al-Din Hoseyn al-Hoseyni Marashi Amoli Isfahani; he was born in ca. 1592/3 in
Isfahan Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
, where he grew up; his father Mirza Rafi al-Din Muhammad was a prominent aristocrat who occupied high offices in the Safavid Empire, and belonged to a family known as the "Shahristani sayyids", which was descended from
Shah Nimatullah Shāh Nimatullāh or Shāh Ni'matullāh Wali ( ''Shāh Ne'matullāh-i Valī''), also spelled as ''Ne'matollah'' and ''Ni'matallah'' was the spiritual leader or Qutb of the Ni'matullah Order in Iran from the 14th and 15th centuries. He is rever ...
, the founder of the Nimatullahi order. Khalifeh Soltan's mother belonged to a family known as the " Khalifeh sayyids", a family of Marashi descent, whose ancestor, Amir Nezam al-Din, was forced to settle in the Golbar quarter of Isfahan in the 15th century. Khalifeh Soltan was thus related to
Shah Abbas I Abbas I (; 27 January 1571 – 19 January 1629), commonly known as Abbas the Great (), was the fifth Safavid shah of Iran from 1588 to 1629. The third son of Shah Mohammad Khodabanda, he is generally considered one of the most important rulers ...
, whose mother was
Khayr al-Nisa Begum Khayr al-Nisa Begum (; known under the royal title ''Mahd-i Ulya'' (), "the highest-ranked cradle"; died 26 July 1579) was an Iranian Mazandarani princess from the Marashi dynasty, who was the wife of the Safavid shah (king) Mohammad Khodabanda ...
, a Marashi princess who had fled to the Safavid court and married the previous Safavid shah
Mohammad Khodabanda Mohammad Khodabanda (also spelled Khodabandeh; , born 1532; died 1595 or 1596) was the fourth Safavid dynasty, Safavid shah of Safavid Iran, Iran from 1578 until his overthrow in 1587 by his son Abbas I of Persia, Abbas I. Khodabanda had succeed ...
(r. 1578–1587). Even though the Khalifeh sayyid family was renowned of being descendants of the celebrated Marashi ruler
Mir-i Buzurg Qavam al-Din ibn Abdallah al-Marashi (), better known as Mir Buzurg or Mir Bozorg (, ''Mīr-e Bozorg'', lit. "The great Mir"), was the founder of the Marashi dynasty, ruling from 1359 to 1362. Early life Mir-i Buzurg belonged to a Sayyid family ...
(r. 1359–1362), they still weren't one of the leading families of Isfahan yet. But they were still affluent and distinguished enough to intermarry with local well-known families. According to the Safavid court historian Iskandar Munshi, "The Khalifeh family had held estates in the Isfahan area for generations." Khalifeh Soltan had a brother named
Mirza Qavam al-Din Mohammad Mirza Qavam al-Din Mohammad () was an Iranian Iranian () may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Iran ** Iranian diaspora, Iranians living outside Iran ** Iranian architecture, architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia ** ...
, who later, like himself and their father, would occupy high offices.


Biography


First term as grand vizier (1623/4-1632)

On November 28, 1607, Khalifeh Soltan married shah Abbas I's third daughter, Khan-Agha Begum. After the marriage, Khalifeh Soltan asked for the governorship of
Tabriz Tabriz (; ) is a city in the Central District (Tabriz County), Central District of Tabriz County, in the East Azerbaijan province, East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the distric ...
as an outcome of the cheerful circumstance, which was, however, declined. This demonstrates Khalifeh Soltan's early passion in getting a role in the state bureaucracy. Khalifeh Soltan was later in 1623/4 appointed by the shah as his grand vizier. When Khalifeh Soltan became grand vizier,
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
had recently been captured, while a Safavid army was marching towards
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
to capture it. Furthermore, during this period, the Armenians suffered from persecutions by Abbas I. In late 1624, after celebrating
Nowruz Nowruz (, , () , () , () , () , Kurdish language, Kurdish: () , () , () , () , , , , () , , ) is the Iranian or Persian New Year. Historically, it has been observed by Iranian peoples, but is now celebrated by many ...
, Abbas I left for
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
to suppress a rebellion, thus leaving the young Khalifeh Soltan in Isfahan, to take care of the Safavid affairs. On 24 March 1626, an event occurred that "portended tragedy and turned to comedy". On that day, Khalifeh Soltan, who was still new to the grand vizier post, sent 200 soldiers to the
convent A convent is an enclosed community of monks, nuns, friars or religious sisters. Alternatively, ''convent'' means the building used by the community. The term is particularly used in the Catholic Church, Lutheran churches, and the Anglican ...
of the
Carmelites The Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel (; abbreviated OCarm), known as the Carmelites or sometimes by synecdoche known simply as Carmel, is a mendicant order in the Catholic Church for both men and women. Histo ...
, a
Catholic religious order In the Catholic Church, a religious order is a community of consecrated life with members that profess solemn vows. They are classed as a type of Religious institute (Catholic), religious institute. Subcategories of religious orders are: * can ...
. The soldiers inspected the convent, and then beat the monks and took them to Khalifeh Soltan. The monks thought they were going to be killed, and supposedly were excited that they were going to be
martyr A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...
ed. However, this was not the case; Khalifeh Soltan, enraged by his soldiers treatment of the monks, threatened to kill the officer who led the soldiers. The monks, however, urged Khalifeh Soltan to spare him, which he did. Khalifeh Soltan and his officials then began asking the monks several questions about Christianity. He then discovered that the monks were not Augustinian monks, whom he had been advised to move to
Shiraz Shiraz (; ) is the List of largest cities of Iran, fifth-most-populous city of Iran and the capital of Fars province, which has been historically known as Pars (Sasanian province), Pars () and Persis. As of the 2016 national census, the popu ...
, "because of Portuguese at Basra, which were considered contrary to Persian interests." He then let the Carmelites go.


Dismissal and exile

Abbas I died in 1629 and was succeeded by his grandson Safi, who in 1632 executed and exiled most of the officers who had served his grandfather, which included Khalifeh Soltan, who was dismissed on February 14 and thereafter exiled to
Qom Qom (; ) is a city in the Central District of Qom County, Qom province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is the seventh largest metropolis and also the seventh largest city in Iran. The city is ...
, while his four sons, who belonged to the Safavid royal house through their mother, were blinded. During his exile in Qom, he focused in expertise and making observations on several valuable texts. According to the person who edited the ''Dastur al-wuzarā'', Khalifeh Soltan was the composer of that work, which was written between 1645–1654. In 1638/9, Khalifeh Soltan may have returned to Isfahan. However, it is known that by 1645 he was living in the city, after having performed a pilgrimage to
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
. During his pilgrimage, he had met Ottaqi Efendi, the
shaykh Sheikh ( , , , , ''shuyūkh'' ) is an honorific title in the Arabic language, literally meaning "elder (administrative title), elder". It commonly designates a tribal chief or a Muslim ulama, scholar. Though this title generally refers to me ...
of Mecca, who described him as a "man of great scholarship and perspicacity", and someone with whom he had had "many enjoyable sessions of learned discussions".


Second term as grand vizier (1645–1654)

On 11 October 1645, the grand vizier
Saru Taqi Mirza Mohammad Taqi (; – 11 October 1645), better known as Saru Taqi (, meaning "Taqi the blond") was a eunuch in Safavid Iran, who served as the Grand Vizier of the Safavid king (''shah'') Safi () and the latter's son Abbas II () until h ...
was murdered under the orders of Abbas II, who appointed Khalifeh Soltan as his grand vizier on October 14. Khalifeh Soltan had at first declined the offer, but quickly alter accepted. His established bureaucratic proficiency and past knowledge were definitely the deciding factors in this reappointment, albeit it may be possible that Abbas II recalled him into duty in part with the goal of compressing the discontent about the scarcity of the positions given to men of religion under his predecessor. The
Dutch Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands ** Dutch people as an ethnic group () ** Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship () ** Dutch language () * In specific terms, i ...
trader Winninx, who was in Isfahan for transactions with the royal court at that time, commented the following about the situation; "He first refused to accept the post claiming to be too old and not competent enough to carry out the task. However, everybody expected him to accept the function. Khalifeh Soltan was universally liked and considered to be an upright person." Khalifeh Soltan's actions during his second term as grand vizier are much better described and unveils a complex identity. Committing up to his notoriety as a dedicated man and a cleric, he started his second term with an operation countering "sinful behaviour", which targeted betting, prostitution, and wine drinking-activities that were normal in coffee houses and taverns. The operation was mainly aimed against well-known forms of
Sufism Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
, but did not stop Khalifeh Soltan from showing (more virtuous) mystical tendencies, or from becoming one of Abbas II's close companions after the shah started drinking in 1649/50. The contemporary Persian historian Nasrabadi implies that Khalifeh Soltan was forced to drink against his will by the shah, which is probable. A year earlier (1648), Khalifeh Soltan had accompanied Abbas II during his expedition against the Mughals, which ended in a victory for the Safavids, who managed to capture Bost and
Qandahar Kandahar is a city in Afghanistan, located in the south of the country on Arghandab River, at an elevation of . It is Afghanistan's second largest city, after Kabul, with a population of about 614,118 in 2015. It is the capital of Kandahar Pro ...
. Khalifeh Soltan is also said to have assembled constant public gatherings for people with appeals and gripes, a routine that was cancelled under his successors. He additionally demonstrated to be an insightful diplomat with the deputies of the foreign naval companies. Khalifeh Soltan was chosen as a representative for the wealthy and pure-blooded Iranian clerical elite. He possessed the village of Golnabad on the road linking Isfahan and
Yazd Yazd (; ) is a city in the Central District of Yazd County, Yazd province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. At the 2016 census, its population was 529,673. Since 2017, the historical city of Yazd is rec ...
, and he had an important
madrasa Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , ), sometimes Romanization of Arabic, romanized as madrasah or madrassa, is the Arabic word for any Educational institution, type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whet ...
constructed in
Qazvin Qazvin (; ; ) is a city in the Central District (Qazvin County), Central District of Qazvin County, Qazvin province, Qazvin province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is the largest city in the provi ...
. After having been ill for 40 days, Khalifeh Soltan died on 5 March 1654 in
Mazandaran Mazandaran Province (; ) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Its capital is the city of Sari, Iran, Sari. Located along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and in the adjacent Central Alborz mountain range and Hyrcanian forests, it is border ...
, the homeland of his ancestors. His body was then taken to
Najaf Najaf is the capital city of the Najaf Governorate in central Iraq, about 160 km (99 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2024 is about 1.41 million people. It is widely considered amongst the holiest cities of Shia Islam an ...
in
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, where he was buried. He was succeeded by
Mohammad Beg Mohammad Beg (; died 1672), was a Muslim of Armenians, Armenian origin, who served as the List of Safavid Grand Viziers, Grand Vizier of the Safavid king (''shah'') Abbas II of Persia, Abbas II (r. 1642–1666) from 1654 to 1661. Origins Mohamma ...
, a
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
of
Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
origin.


Offspring

Khalifeh Soltan's four sons, whom were all blinded in 1632 by Safi, were due to this not able to hold any post. They did, however, become renowned ''
ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...
''. One of these sons, Mirza Sayyed Hasan, was one of the most dominant ''ulama'' of his time. He had married the Safavid princess Zobeydeh Khanum, who was the daughter of the later Shah Suleiman I (r. 1666–1694), and the sister of
Shah Soltan Hoseyn Soltan Hoseyn (; 1668 – 9 September 1727) was the Safavid shah of Iran from 1694 to 1722. He was the son and successor of Shah Suleiman (). Born and raised in the royal harem, Soltan Hoseyn ascended the throne with limited life experience an ...
(r. 1694–1722). She bore him Mirza Mohammad Baqer and Mir Sayyed Morteza, who both served as the ''sadr-i khasseh'' and ''sadr-i mamalik'' under their cousin Soltan Hossein. Khalifeh Soltan also had several daughters—in 1651/2, one of his daughters married the son of the minister of religion (''sadr-i mamalik'')
Mirza Mohammad Karaki Mirza Mohammad Mahdi Karaki () was an Iranian cleric and statesman, who served as the grand Vizier of the Safavid king (''shah'') Abbas II (r. 1642-1666), and the latter's son and successor Suleiman I (r. 1666–1694). He was the son of Mirza Hab ...
. Another daughter was married to Mirza Mohsen Razavi, whilst a third one was married to the ''
qurchi-bashi The Military of the Safavid dynasty#Qurchi-bashi, Qurchi-bashi (), also spelled Qorchi-bashi (), was the head of the ''Qurchi (royal bodyguard), qurchis'', the royal bodyguard of the Safavid dynasty, Safavid shah. There were also ''qurch-bashis'' ...
'' Morteza Qoli Khan Shamlu.


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Khalifeh Soltan Grand viziers of the Safavid Empire Politicians from Isfahan 17th-century Iranian politicians 1590s births 1654 deaths Khalifeh family 17th-century people from Safavid Iran People from Amol