, also known as Kawaji Toshikane, was a Japanese military general, politician, and samurai. during the

Meiji period The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...

.Lanman, Charles. ''Leading Men of Japan: With an Historical Summary of the Empire''. The

University of California The University of California (UC) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university, research university system in the U.S. state of California. Headquartered in Oakland, California, Oakland, the system is co ...

. Published by D. Lothrop and Company, 1883
110
Digitized November 21, 2007. Retrieved on July 19, 2009. A

Satsuma Domain The , briefly known as the , was a Han system, domain (''han'') of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan during the Edo period from 1600 to 1871. The Satsuma Domain was based at Kagoshima Castle in Satsuma Province, the core of the modern city of ...

samurai initially tasked to study foreign systems for application in the Japanese military, Kawaji fought against forces loyal to the

Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...

during the

Boshin War The , sometimes known as the Japanese Revolution or Japanese Civil War, was a civil war in Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate and a coalition seeking to seize political power in the name of the Impe ...

. Later, his work on setting up the Japanese police at the aftermath of the

Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored Imperial House of Japan, imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Althoug ...

, first as ''rasotsu'', and then as ''keisatsu'', earned him the recognition as the . Besides his police and military work, he was also noted for his contributions to the development of

Kendo is a modern Japanese martial art, descended from kenjutsu (one of the old Japanese martial arts, swordsmanship), that uses bamboo swords ( shinai) as well as protective armor ( bōgu). It began as samurai warriors' customary swordsmanship ex ...

, a Japanese

martial art Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defence; military and law enforcement applications; competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the pres ...

Early life and career

Born on 17 June 1834 ( OS: 11 May 1834) in

Kagoshima , is the capital Cities of Japan, city of Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 583,966 in 285,992 households, and a population density of 1100 persons per km2. The total area of the city is . Etymology While the ...

, Kawaji Toshiyoshi was the eldest son of Kawaji Toshiaki (also known as Kawaji Toshiakira, 1801–1868) with his wife Etsuko. While his generally accepted birth year is 1834, other sources mention it as either 1829 or 1836. His father was a progressive Kanjō-bugyō who negotiated the Treaty of Shimoda, and campaigned for opening Japan with Tsutsui Masanori (1778–1859), a Gaikoku bugyō. Toshiyoshi himself, while serving under Shimazu Hisamitsu, the last Satsuma Domain

daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji era, Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and no ...

, was tasked to study foreign techniques to apply on the Japanese military. On 20 August 1864, he was involved in the Kinmon incident (Forbidden Gate Incident), wherein he fought against

rōnin In feudal Japan to early modern Japan (1185–1868), a ''rōnin'' ( ; , , 'drifter' or 'wandering man', ) was a samurai who had no lord or master and in some cases, had also severed all links with his family or clan. A samurai became a ''rō ...

from the

Chōshū Domain The , also known as the , was a domain (''han'') of the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan during the Edo period from 1600 to 1871.Deal, William E. (2005) ''Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan,'' p. 81 The Chōshū Domain was based ...

. Both being samurai of the Satsuma Domain, Toshiyoshi and Toshiaki played significant roles in the Boshin War and the

. Toshiyoshi participated in the

Battle of Toba–Fushimi The occurred between pro-Imperial and Tokugawa shogunate forces during the Boshin War in Japan. The battle started on 27 January 1868 (or fourth year of Keiō, first month, 3rd day, according to the lunar calendar), when the forces of the sho ...

(27–31 January 1868), and the

Battle of Aizu The Battle of Aizu () was fought in northern Japan from October to November in autumn 1868, and was part of the Boshin War. History Aizu was known for its martial skill, and maintained at any given time a standing army of over 5000. It was oft ...

(6 October – 6 November 1868). Even though wounded at the Battle of Nihonmatsu (29 July 1868), he recovered so that he could participate in the Aizu campaign. After the war he was promoted to

Bugyō was a title assigned to ''samurai'' officials in feudal Japan. ''Bugyō'' is often translated as commissioner, magistrate, or governor, and other terms would be added to the title to describe more specifically a given official's tasks or jurisdi ...

(奉行, lit. ''governor'' or ''commissioner'').

Police reform

Before the 1871

abolition of the han system The in the Empire of Japan and its replacement by a system of prefectures in 1871 was the culmination of the Meiji Restoration begun in 1868, the starting year of the Meiji period. Under the reform, all daimyos (, ''daimyō'', feudal lords) ...

, which effectively removed the daimyōs and bugyōs from their official positions, the new Japanese capital of

Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...

was patrolled by mixed troops of samurai. On 29 August 1871, a special force, modeled after Western-style

National Gendarmerie The National Gendarmerie ( ) is one of two national law enforcement forces of France, along with the National Police (France), National Police. The Gendarmerie is a branch of the French Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Minister ...

, was organized. The influence of the French system was highlighted by

Fukuzawa Yukichi was a Japanese educator, philosopher, writer, entrepreneur and samurai who founded Keio Gijuku, the newspaper ', and the Institute for Study of Infectious Diseases. Fukuzawa was an early advocate for reform in Japan. His ideas about the or ...

, who visited France in 1869. Known as ''rasotsu'', Kawaji and

Saigō Takamori Saigō Takamori (; 23 January 1828 – 24 September 1877) was a Japanese samurai and politician who was one of the most influential figures in Japanese history. He played a key role in the Meiji Restoration, which overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate ...

(a senior samurai also hailing from the

) were tasked with the recruitment of patrolmen. A total of 2,000 patrolmen initially formed the ''rasotsu'' due to Kawaji and Saigo's efforts, and an additional patrolman was recruited for every 3,000 city inhabitants in every prefecture outside Tokyo. As of 1872, the estimated total Japanese population was 34.8 million, around 900,000 of which were in Tokyo. This was followed by the voluntary surrendering of traditional samurai wear and weaponry. To further study foreign police systems, Kawaji joined the

Iwakura Mission The Iwakura Mission or Iwakura Embassy (, ''Iwakura Shisetsudan'') was a Japanese diplomatic voyage to Europe and the United States conducted between 1871 and 1873 by leading statesmen and scholars of the Meiji period. It was not the only such m ...

, a formal diplomatic trip to the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

the Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

, Prussia,

Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...

, Bavaria,

Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

, and

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

. While the primary objective of the mission to renegotiate the

unequal treaties The unequal treaties were a series of agreements made between Asian countries—most notably Qing China, Tokugawa Japan and Joseon Korea—and Western countries—most notably the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, the Unit ...

was not achieved, Kawaji gathered enough information for him to formulate proposals in reforming the Japanese police, primarily focusing on financing and control structure. He particularly benefited from the professional services of the French lawyer Prosper Gambet-Gross (1801–1868). In 1873, Kawaji's recommendations, which were influenced by the centralized French system, combined with the Confucian model of hierarchy, were approved. In the same year, a police bureau (警保局, ''Keiho-kyoku'') was organized, with Kawaji as its head, and working under the jurisdiction of the

Home Ministry An interior ministry or ministry of the interior (also called ministry of home affairs or ministry of internal affairs) is a Ministry (government department), government department that is responsible for domestic policy, public security and law e ...

, headed by Minister

Ōkubo Toshimichi Ōkubo Toshimichi (; 26 September 1830 – 14 May 1878) was a Japanese statesman and samurai of the Satsuma Domain who played a central role in the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was one of the Three Great Nobles of the Restoration (維新の� ...

Chief of police

On 9 January 1874, the ''Keishichō'' (警視庁, present

Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department The , known locally as simply the Metropolitan Police Department (MPD), is the prefectural police of Tokyo, Tokyo Metropolis, Japan. Founded in 1874, the TMPD is the largest police force in Japan by number of officers, with a staff of more than 4 ...

) was formed, with Kawaji as ''Daikeishi'' (Chief of Police, Superintendent-General), having an equivalent rank of major general. Meanwhile, the policemen were re-branded as ''keisatsu'' (けいさつ), a name which has been retained to this day. By 1876, the total number of Tokyo policemen increased to 6,000. Kawaji was also careful in recruiting former enemies during the Boshin War, including elements of the

Shinsengumi The was a small secret police organization, elite group of swordsmen that was organized by commoners and low rank samurai, commissioned by the (military government) during Japan's Bakumatsu period (late Tokugawa shogunate) in 1863. It was ac ...

(新選組, lit. ''New Selected Group''), the

special police force Special police usually describes a law enforcement agency or unit within a such an agency whose duties and responsibilities are significantly different from other forces in the same nation, jurisdiction, or from other personnel within the same agen ...

organized by the

in 1863. One of the better known former Shinsengumi members in the police force was Third Unit Captain Saitō Hajime, who became a police

inspector Inspector, also police inspector or inspector of police, is a police rank. The rank or position varies in seniority depending on the organization that uses it. Australia The rank of Inspector is present in all Australian police forces excep ...

under the name of Fujita Gorō. He is believed to have been recruited by Kawaji himself. Kawaji also recruited Gambet-Gross as his formal adviser, who would later assist in numerous court cases, especially those involving foreigners and

extraterritoriality In international law, extraterritoriality or exterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Historically, this primarily applied to individuals, as jurisdict ...

. While Kawaji himself did not possess any mastery of the French language, he acquired the services of the interpreter Numa Morikazu, who accompanied him during the Iwakura Mission.

Philosophy

While Kawaji was not known as an administrator, despite having a reputation comparable with the Three Great Nobles of the Restoration (維新の三傑, ''Ishin no Sanketsu''), some regard him as the one who "established the Meiji political system" and "the great benefactor of the imperial police." In his work entitled ''Keisatsu Shugan'' (警察手眼, Hands and Eyes of the Police), he emphasized that the police exists as a preventive force tasked to complement the military. He treated the societal structure as similar to a family, wherein the government serves as a parent, and the people as its children. According to Kawaji the role of the police is that of a nanny or nursemaid, who understands the proper use of their vested powers. Further using the analogy of family, Kawaji posits that the people ought to become independent and self-reliant, and that their rights must not be violated. He also believed in a police bound by duty, yet affectionate with the public, and a chief of police in command, rather than directly involved. He aimed to instill strict discipline among policemen. He himself slept only around four hours a day when on duty. One motto of his for police officers was this: "no sleep, no rest." While the Japanese police was later incorporated with German influences, his ideals emphasizing their role in promoting national peace was carried over, and to an extent, contributed to the development of

thought control Brainwashing is the controversial idea that the human mind can be altered or controlled against a person's will by manipulative psychological techniques. Brainwashing is said to reduce its subject's ability to think critically or independently ...

as a state policy in the years leading to the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

Contribution to kendo

In 1876, five years after a voluntary surrender of swords, the government banned the use of swords by the surviving samurai and initiated

sword hunt Several times in Japanese history, the new ruler sought to ensure his position by calling a . Armies would scour the entire country, confiscating the weapons of all potential enemies of the new regime. In this manner, the new ruler sought to ensur ...

s. Meanwhile, in an attempt to standardize the sword styles (''kenjutsu'') used by policemen, Kawaji recruited swordsmen from various schools to come up with a unified swordsmanship style. This led to the rise of the '' Battotai'' (抜刀隊, lit. ''Drawn Sword Corps''), which mainly featured sword-bearing policemen. However, it proved difficult to integrate all sword arts, which led to a compromise of ten practice moves (''kata'') for police training. Difficulties of integration notwithstanding, this integration effort led to the development of

kendo is a modern Japanese martial art, descended from kenjutsu (one of the old Japanese martial arts, swordsmanship), that uses bamboo swords ( shinai) as well as protective armor ( bōgu). It began as samurai warriors' customary swordsmanship ex ...

, which remains in use to date. In 1878, Kawaji wrote a book on swordsmanship, entitled ''Gekiken Saikō-ron'' (Revitalizing Swordsmanship), wherein he stressed that sword styles should not disappear with modernization, considering that other countries have been fascinated with them, but should be integrated as necessary skills for the police. He draws a particular example from his experience with the

Satsuma Rebellion The Satsuma Rebellion, also known as the , was a revolt of disaffected samurai against the new imperial government of the Empire of Japan, nine years into the Meiji era. Its name comes from the Satsuma Domain, which had been influential in ...

. The ''Junsa Kyōshūjo'' (Patrolman's Training Institute), founded in 1879, provided a curriculum which allowed policemen to study the sword arts during their off-hours (''gekiken''). In the same year, Kawaji wrote another book on swordsmanship, entitled ''Kendo Saikō-ron'' (Revitalizing Kendo), wherein he defended the significance of such sword art training for the police. While the institute remained active only until 1881, the police continued to support such practice.

Satsuma Rebellion

In February 1877, British diplomat

Ernest Mason Satow Sir Ernest Mason Satow (30 June 1843 – 26 August 1929), was a British diplomat, scholar and Japanologist. He is better known in Japan, where he was known as , than in Britain or the other countries in which he served as a diplomat. He was ...

noted allegations, which linked Kawaji and other high-ranking government officials, including Minister Ōkubo, with a planned assassination of Saigō Takamori, who, by this time, had already resigned from the government. What bolstered the credibility of this allegation was the leave of absence Kawaji had granted to a number of policemen, who proceeded to Kagoshima. Satow later spoke with Navy Minister Katsu Kaishū, who cleared Ōkubo of connection to the assassination attempt, which was never carried out, but affirmed Kawaji's intention to assassinate Saigō to prevent a civil war. A further confirmation of this intention was the confession of Nakahara Hisao, a ''sho-keibu'' (corporal), who was supposedly the assassin assigned to eliminate Saigō. However, the Satsuma Rebellion had already begun in response to the rumored assassination, much to Saigō's dismay, especially since he and Kawaji had been friends. On 19 February 1877, the Kumamoto Castle was attacked by around 20,000 samurai from the Satsuma Domain. True to his principles of the police working together with the military, Kawaji in his capacity as a major general led the Third Brigade, accompanying Major General

Ōyama Iwao was a Japanese Field Marshal (Japan), field marshal, and one of the founders of the Imperial Japanese Army. He was representative of the outstanding military commanders of the late modern period. Biography Early life Ōyama was born in Kag ...

of the

Imperial Japanese Army The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA; , ''Dai-Nippon Teikoku Rikugun'', "Army of the Greater Japanese Empire") was the principal ground force of the Empire of Japan from 1871 to 1945. It played a central role in Japan’s rapid modernization during th ...

, who led the Fifth Brigade. Similar to Kawaji, Ōyama had also visited France to study. By 23 June, Kawaji, this time promoted as

lieutenant general Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was norma ...

, and his division, had already entered Kagoshima, Saigō's headquarters (around 170 kilometers south of

Kumamoto is the capital Cities of Japan, city of Kumamoto Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, Japan. , the city has an estimated population of 738,907 and a population density of 1,893 people per km2. The total area is 390.32 km2. had a populat ...

), reinforcing the beleaguered Admiral Kawamura Sumiyoshi and breaking the rebel strength. Saigō and his remaining forces, numbering around 500, were ultimately vanquished at the Battle of Shiroyama on 24 September 1877.

Security issues

On 14 May 1878, less than a year after the death of

Kido Takayoshi , formerly known as , was a Japanese statesman, samurai and ''Shishi (Japan), shishi'' who is considered one of the Three Great Nobles of the Restoration, three great nobles who led the Meiji Restoration. Early life Born Wada Kogorō on Augu ...

(who was also part of the Iwakura Mission) and the Satsuma Rebellion, Minister Ōkubo Toshimichi was assassinated by Shimada Ichirō and six other samurai from the

Kaga Domain The , also known as the , was a domain of the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan during the Edo period from 1583 to 1871. ''Ōkubo Toshimichi: The Bismarck of Japan''.
Berkeley:

University of California Press The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by faculty ...

. pp. 253–254 The assassination of a high-level government official such as Ōkubo, the last of the Three Great Nobles of the Restoration (the other two being Saigō and Kido), raised concerns with the internal security being provided both by the police and the military. Nine days after the assassination,

Emperor Meiji , posthumously honored as , was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the List of emperors of Japan, traditional order of succession, reigning from 1867 until his death in 1912. His reign is associated with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, which ...

announced his intentions to tour the country, particularly the Hokurikudō and the Tōkaidō regions. The Hokurikudō tour would also mean visiting

Kanazawa is the capital of Ishikawa Prefecture in central Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 466,029 in 203,271 households, and a population density of 990 persons per km2. The total area of the city was . Etymology The name "Kanazaw ...

. As a precautionary measure, Kawaji detained 18 Kanazawa samurai who were suspected of holding extremist views, and replaced some of the soldiers stationed in Kanazawa. Considering that Kawaji was also included on the alleged hit list of Ōkubo's assassins, measures were also required to ensure his own safety as the head of Emperor Meiji's security detail. The emperor safely arrived in Kanazawa on 2 October, and departed on 5 October.

Death

In 1879, Kawaji travelled to France once more for a study mission, which was supposed to last until 1880. However, his mission was cut short, and he died upon his return to Japan, in Tokyo, on 13 October 1879. His death was publicly announced five days later, and he was buried in Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.