Karaka (tree)

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'', commonly known as karaka or the New Zealand laurel, is a medium-sized evergreen tree in the family Corynocarpaceae. It is endemic to New Zealand and is common throughout the North Island and less common in the South Island. ''C. laevigatus'' individuals are also found on the Chatham Islands, Kermadec Islands, and the Three Kings Islands. ''C. laevigatus'' is mostly a coastal tree, although in the North Island, it is also found inland.

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' was first described in 1776 by the German naturalists Georg and Johann Reinhold Forster. ''C. laevigatus'' grows to heights of up to and has a stout trunk of up to in diameter. Its leaves are leathery, dark to bright green in colour and up to long. From August to November, ''C. laevigatus'' produces large oval-shaped orange-coloured fruits, about in length. ''C. laevigatus'' seeds are highly toxic to humans and contain poisonous toxins and other glucosides of 3-nitropropionic acid. The fruits are a valuable food source for the kererū (''Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae'') and the Chatham Islands pigeon (''Hemiphaga chathamensis''). ''C. laevigatus'' has been introduced to the United States for reforestation purposes; it is naturalised and considered an invasive species on several Hawaiian islands and is mostly found on the island of Kauai.

It is considered a (cultural treasure) amongst the Māori and Moriori peoples, who valued ''C. laevigatus'' for its drupes and seeds. On the Chatham Islands, depictions of Moriori ancestors were carved on to ''C. laevigatus'' trees (known as ) and are considered internationally significant and unique to their culture. An exoplanet originally named HD 137388 was renamed to "Karaka" in 2019 in recognition of the tree's orange-coloured fruit.

Description

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' (karaka) is a medium-sized evergreen leafy canopy tree with erect spreading branches. It is endemic to New Zealand. It grows to heights of up to and has a stout trunk usually up to in diameter, but can be up to in diameter. The largest trunk of a ''C. laevigatus'' specimen diameter ever measured was in diameter. Its bark is typically a grey colour. ''C. laevigatus'' is predominantly a coastal tree, although in the North Island, it can also be found in lowland inland forests.

Mature trees have dark brown corrugated bark with corrugations that are broken up into pieces that are roughly and thick. Younger trees have light brown bark that frequently has short, horizontal bands that resemble sewing stitches. ''C. laevigatus''s dense shade and prolific seeding exclude local species and change the host community's composition and ecological processes in areas where it has been allowed to proliferate. ''C. laevigatus'' has an alternating elliptic oval-shaped foliage that are up to wide, with petioles less than long.

From August to November, ''C. laevigatus'' produces large, stout, erect panicles of tiny greenish-yellow flowers, each less than in diameter. It starts flowering between August and November, and each panicle may have up to 100–200 flowers. Its sepals are rounded, and its petals are vaguely spoon-shaped ( spathulate). The fruit ''C. laevigatus'' produces are oval-shaped and in length; with pale yellow–orange coloured flesh and a poisonous seed which is smooth and elliptic. The seed has an open system of fibrous veins on the yellowish surface. The fruit has a sickly sweet taste, reminiscent of apricots or dates. Its leaves are dark green in colour, paler green beneath, thick, leathery, and are vaguely egg-shaped ( obovate) to rectangular (oblong) in character.

''Corynocarpus laevigatus''s wood anatomy prevents them from being dated using the conventional technique of counting annual growth rings in the trunk. ''C. laevigatus'' specimens planted in Palmerston North in 1962 grew to a height of in 42 years. The largest stem diameter measured , and the trees grew per year. Other ''C. laevigatus'' trees grew at different rates; the largest ''C. laevigatus'' tree in mainland New Zealand was 500 years old with a diameter at breast height (DBH) of and a growth rate of per year. The fruits of ''C. laevigatus'' usually ripen between January and April and the seeds are mostly dispersed by two native columbiform birds, the kererū and the parea, which also feeds on its fruit. In modern-day New Zealand, the majority of ''C. laevigatus'' seeds germinate within of a parent tree, indicating that the tree does not normally spread out far.

Phytochemistry

At least 11 compounds have been identified in ''C. laevigatus''. A unique nitropropanoyl glucopyranose called 1,4,6-tri-(3-nitropropanoyl)-β-D-glucopyranose (corynocarpin) was first identified and extracted by a 1978 study published in ''Phytochemistry''. A 2025 study examined the phytochemical screening of ''C. laevigatus'' extracts and revealed that the tree contains "significant amounts of phytochemicals".

Gallery

File:Karaka Flowers.jpg, Close-up of ''C. laevigatus''s greenish-yellow flower panicle and characteristic leathery, oval-shaped leaves., alt=Refer to caption.
File:Karaka Fruit.jpg, Clusters of ''C. laevigatus''s fruit showing different ripening stages, from green to orange-yellow, hanging from branches with yellowing leaves., alt=Refer to caption.
File:Corynocarpus laevigatus leafage.jpg, Dense foliage of a mature ''C. laevigatus'' specimen showing its characteristic branching pattern and dark green, glossy leaves., alt=Refer to caption.
File:The bark of a karaka tree (Corynocarpus laevigatus) on the Chatham Island.jpg, The bark of a karaka tree (Corynocarpus laevigatus) on the Chatham Island, a Moriori dendroglyph can be seen in the axis of the trunk., The trunk of a ''C. laevigatus'' specimen on Chatham Island; a Moriori dendroglyph can vaguely be seen in the centre of the trunk., alt=Refer to caption.

Taxonomy

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' was first described by the German naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster in 1776. Despite this, their description was incomplete, and the figures of the flowers were inaccurate. The species was first described from specimens collected by Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster on the second voyage of James Cook. Sir Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander, who were the botanists on the first voyage of James Cook, also brought specimens of ''C. laevigatus'' to England, where they described and figured it under the name ''Merretia lucida'', although their work was never published.

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' is a medium-sized evergreen tree endemic to New Zealand, unlikely to be mistaken for any other native, foreign, or naturalised tree. ''C. laevigatus'' can be readily identified by its orange drupes and its leathery leaves. ''C. laevigatus'' is the only member of the family Corynocarpaceae found in New Zealand. The four other species in the genus grow across the Pacific Islands and Australia, including: (''C. similis'') in Vanuatu, (''C. cribbianus'') in the Solomon Islands, North Queensland and Vanuatu; (''C. dissimilis'') in New Caledonia; and ('' C. rupestris'') in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland.

The '' Corynocarpus'' genus may have originated from a Paleotropical centre, then separated to two radiations into colder climates. In its first separation, ''C. cribbianus'' and ''C. rupestris'' were found in Australia through New Guinea, while in the second separation, ''C. dissimilis'', ''C. similis'', and ''C. laevigatus'' were found in New Caledonia, which led to New Zealand. Fossilised kernels from the genus ''Corynocarpus'', from the early Miocene era, were found at Landslip Hill in the Southland Region, this discovery indicates that the genus has a long history in New Zealand. It is possible that the ''Corynocarpus'' genus spread from New Caledonia to New Zealand via land connections that existed in the mid-Tertiary era.

Etymology and names

The etymology (word origin) of the genus ''Corynocarpus'' derives from the Greek , meaning 'club', and , meaning 'fruit', translating in English to 'club fruit'. The specific epithet (second part of the scientific name) originates from the Latin meaning 'smooth', in reference either to the fruit, the leaves or the skin. In the Māori language, karaka can either refer to the fruit of the tree or the tree itself. The word has origins in Proto-Polynesian languages. Cognates of karaka are used in Polynesian languages for members of the '' Planchonella'' genus, which share a similar appearance with ''Corynocarpus laevigatus''. Karaka is also the Māori word for the colour orange, and has likely only been in use since the 19th century, as no word meaning orange appears in early Māori language dictionaries. In the Moriori language and on the Chatham Islands, both the tree and the fruit are known as . This name may share an etymology with Polynesian names used to describe plants of the true ginger genus, '' Zingiber''. In English, the tree is also commonly known as the "New Zealand laurel".

Distribution

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' is found in large numbers throughout the North Island and South Island as far south as the Banks Peninsula on the east coast of the South Island and Greymouth (on the West Coast). It is also found on the Chatham Islands, Kermadec Islands, and the Three Kings Islands. Sources generally agree that before Polynesian arrival in New Zealand, ''C. laevigatus'' was likely restricted to the far north of the North Island, despite its current range across offshore islands and the northern half of the South Island, which was likely spread from Māori plantings. Populations of ''C. laevigatus'' are often found in association with former pā (Māori village) sites. In the far north of New Zealand, where kauri (''Agathis australis'') forests are the natural vegetation type, the density of ''C. laevigatus'' is low (2.5 stems per hectare). Populations can be significantly denser further south in the North Island, where ''C. laevigatus'' has spread from Māori plantings. A 2006 study by the '' New Zealand Journal of Botany'' indicated that the average canopy coverage across plots in ''C. laevigatus'' stands was 41%, with a maximum cover of 75%. Its estimated altitudinal range is between 29°N and 38°S. Dense carpets of ''C. laevigatus'' seedlings can make it difficult for the natural regeneration of other species.

The species was not naturally present in the Otago and Southland Regions of New Zealand prior to human settlement. All the individuals south of the Banks Peninsula are likely to be more recent horticultural introductions. The current population in Otago and Southland remains naturally uncommon and widely scattered along the coastline. ''C. laevigatus''s South Island population is exclusively located near coastal areas and most of the population is centred in the Banks Peninsula (including Christchurch's coastal areas) and the Marlborough Sounds. ''C. laevigatus'' has been introduced to the United States, it is naturalised and considered an invasive species in Hawaii, where it is naturalised in moist soils and considered a threat to endangering rare plants such as '' Exocarpos luteolus''. ''C. laevigatus'' was introduced to Hawaii for reforestation purposes and was first naturalised to Kauai in 1891, and is still commonly found throughout the island. ''C. laevigatus'' is primarily naturalised on the island of Kauai, it is also found on the islands of Hawaii, Molokai, and Oahu. ''C. laevigatus'' is also grown in Southern California.

Ecology

The fruits that ''C. laevigatus'' produces are a valuable food source for native New Zealand birds. The kererū (''Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae'') and the Chatham Islands pigeon or parea (''Hemiphaga chathamensis'') are the only are the only extant bird species with a gape large enough to consume the fruits of ''C. laevigatus''.

A 1966 article from the '' Ornithological Society of New Zealand'' reported a New Zealand bellbird (''Anthornis melanura'') feeding on the sap from the bark of ''C. laevigatus''. Other smaller New Zealand birds such as the North Island robin (''Petroica longipes''), silvereye (''Zosterops lateralis'') and whiteheads (''Mohoua albicilla'') are known to search around ''C. laevigatus'' specimens for insects. The endocarp of ''C. laevigatus'' are occasionally nibbled by Polynesian rat (''Rattus exulans''), while the larger brown rats (''Rattus norvegicus'') occasionally chew through the endocarps. Both species consume the flesh of ''C. laevigatus''. Possums (an invasive species in New Zealand) are also known to consume the ripe flesh of ''C. laevigatus'' fruits. The extinct moa and other large birds likely consumed the fruits of ''C. laevigatus'' centuries ago. ''C. laevigatus'' is one of New Zealand's tree species with the highest moisture contents and the lowest flammability rates, as examined in a 2016 study.

Relationship with humans

Cultivation

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' is common in cultivation and widely available for sale both in New Zealand and elsewhere in the world. It was one of the most grown food crops by pre-European Māori (alongside kūmara and aruhe); they ate the drupe and seed after a long detoxification process. ''C. laevigatus''s seeds contain a poisonous toxin (known as 'karakin') and other glucosides of 3-nitropropionic acid, which are highly toxic. Some initial symptoms of poisoning include: diarrhoea, nausea and restlessness which develop to more severe gastrointestinal and neurological problems.

Every autumn, pre-colonisation Māori would collect the seeds dropped from the coastal ''C. laevigatus'' trees. The seeds would be placed in open-weave traditional baskets (), washed in water to remove the outer pulp and baked and sun dried, a process that would remove toxicity from the seeds.

In Māori culture

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' is of great importance to Māori, who primarily used it as a food source. In Māori mythology, ''C. laevigatus'' is told to be from Hawaiki, an ancestral homeland for the Māori people. While pre-European Māori primarily valued ''C. laevigatus'' for its nutrition rather than medicine, they did use leaf undersides to draw out infections and fresh upper surfaces to heal injured skin.

The seeds of ''C. laevigatus'' were of great value to Māori and needed to be prepared before they could be safely consumed, while the flesh of the fruits was consumed uncooked. The seeds are very poisonous and bitter in taste which had to be steamed properly in earth ovens (). ''C. laevigatus''s timber was also used in constructing canoes ().

In Moriori culture

On the Chatham Islands, ''C. laevigatus'' have played a distinguished role in the history of the indigenous Moriori peoples; the bark of the ''C. laevigatus'' trees has been notably used for carving dendroglyphs rather than a food source. A 2000 Department of Conservation report documented 147 ''C. laevigatus'' specimens with dendroglyphs on the Chatham Islands, although not all carvings were confirmed as authentically Moriori. ''C. laevigatus'' (or in Moriori) is considered a (cultural treasure) amongst the Māori and Moriori peoples. Moriori also utilised ''C. laevigatus'' trees by carving on them; known as in the Moriori language, the carvings typically depict Moriori ancestors and are considered internationally significant and unique to their culture. A protects the remaining carved trees due to their fragile state, with conservation measures underway. ''C. laevigatus'' timber was also utilised by the Moriori to smoke and preserve food.

Modern impact

''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' has been linked to dog poisonings in New Zealand, leading to calls for the plant to be removed from urban areas.

Recognition

An exoplanet originally named HD 137388 was renamed to "Karaka" in 2019 in honour of the tree's orange fruit.{{Sfn, Betson, 2019, p=1 A small community {{convert, 20, km, abbr=on west of Whanganui named Pākaraka is also named in honour of the tree and its name reflects the "abundance of karaka trees" that previously were situated there.{{Sfn, Tahana, 2022 New Zealand Post recognised ''C. laevigatus'' in 1967 by featuring it on penny postage stamps.{{sfn, McAlpine, Cory, Cox, McLeod (Taranaki Whānui), 2024, p=14

See also

{{portal, New Zealand
* List of trees native to New Zealand

References

{{Reflist, 30em

Works cited

Books
{{Refbegin, 30em
* {{Cite book , title=Manual of the New Zealand flora , last=Cheeseman , first=T. F. , publisher=New Zealand Board of Science and Art , year=1906 , edition=1 , location=Wellington, New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/manualofnewzeala00chee , via=the Internet Archive
* {{Cite book , title=New Zealand plants suitable for North American gardens , last=Cockayne , first=Leonard , year=1914 , location=Wellington, New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/newzealandplants00cockrich , via=the Internet Archive
* {{cite book , last=Jopson , first=Fraser W. , last2=McKibbin , first2=Craig R. , title=Moriori Tree Carvings, Chatham Islands , url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/docts20.pdf , publisher= Department of Conservation , volume=1 , date=2000 , isbn=0-478-21863-X
* {{Cite book , title=The Forest Flora of New Zealand , last=Kirk , first=Thomas , year=1889 , location=Wellington, New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/forestfloranewz00kirk , via=the Internet Archive
* {{Cite book , title=Plants of New Zealand , last=Laing , first=R. M. , publisher=Whitcombe and Tombs , year=1906 , location=Christchurch, New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924101529166 , via=the Internet Archive
* {{Cite book , title=Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced) , last=Little , first=Elbert , publisher=United States Department of Agriculture , year=1989 , location=Washington D.C., United States , url=https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/33502 , last2=Skolmen , first2=Roger G.
* {{Cite book , title=New Zealand Trees and Shrubs: A Comprehensive Guide to Cultivation and Identification , last=Metcalf , first=L. J. , publisher=Reed Publishing , year=2000 , isbn=0790006626 , location=Auckland, New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/newzealandtreess0000metc , url-access=registration , via=the Internet Archive
* {{cite book , last=Metcalf , first=L. J. , title=A Photographic Guide to trees of New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/photographicguid0000metc , url-access=registration , publisher= New Holland Publishers , publication-place=Auckland, New Zealand , date=2002 , isbn=1-877246-57-3 , via=the Internet Archive
* {{Cite book, last=Mirza, first=Umair, url=https://archive.org/details/batemannewzealandencyclopedia6thedition, title=New Zealand Encyclopedia, publisher=David Bateman, year=2005, isbn=1869536010, location=New Zealand, via=the Internet Archive, access-date=4 November 2024, edition=6th
* {{cite book , last=Poole , first=A. L. , last2=Adams , first2=Nancy Mary , title=Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand , url=https://archive.org/details/treesshrubsofnew0000pool , url-access=registration , publisher=Government Printing Office , publication-place=Wellington, New Zealand , date=1963 , via=the Internet Archive
* {{cite book , last=Reed , first=Alexander Wyclif , title=An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Maori Life , url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000reed , url-access=registration , publisher=A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1963. , location=Wellington, New Zealand , date=1963 , via=the Internet Archive
* {{Cite book, last1=Sawyer, first1=John, last2=McFadgen, first2=Bruce, last3=Hughes, first3=Paul, date=March 2003, title=Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus J.R. et G. Forst.) in Wellington Conservancy (excluding Chatham Islands), url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/dsis101.pdf, series=DOC Science Internal Series, publisher= Department of Conservation , volume=101, pages=1–26, isbn=0-478-22387-0
* {{cite book , last=Vennell , first=Robert , title=The Meaning of Trees , location=Auckland, New Zealand , publisher=HarperCollins , date=2019 , isbn=978-1-77554-130-1 , lccn=2019403535
* {{cite book , last=Wagner , first=Warren L. , last2=Herbst , first2=Derral R. , last3=Sohmer , first3=S.H. , title=Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii , publisher=University of Hawaii Press , year=1999
{{Refend
Journals
{{Refbegin, 30em
* {{cite journal , last=Atherton , first=RA , last2=Lockhart , first2=PJ , last3=McLenachan , first3=PA , last4=de Lange , first4=PJ , last5=Wagstaff , first5=SJ , last6=Shepherd , first6=LD , title=A molecular investigation into the origin and relationships of karaka/kōpi (''Corynocarpus laevigatus'') in New Zealand , journal=Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand , publisher=Informa UK Limited , volume=45 , issue=4 , date=2 October 2015 , issn=0303-6758 , doi=10.1080/03036758.2015.1093006 , doi-access=free , pages=212–220
* {{cite journal , last=Clout , first=M. N. , last2=Karl , first2=B. J. , last3=Pierce , first3=R. J. , last4=Robertson , first4=H. A. , title=Breeding and survival of New Zealand Pigeons Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae , url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1474-919X.1995.tb03248.x , url-access=subscription , journal=Ibis , publisher=Wiley , volume=137 , issue=2 , year=1995 , issn=0019-1019 , doi=10.1111/j.1474-919x.1995.tb03248.x , pages=264–271
* {{Cite journal, volume=13, pages=3–38, last1=Colenso, first1=William, title=On the vegetable food of the ancient New Zealanders before Cook's visit, journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, date=1880 , url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/periodicals/TPRSNZ1880-13.2.6.1.1 , via=Papers Past
* {{cite journal , last=Costall , first=J.A. , last2=Carter , first2=R.J. , last3=Shimada , first3=Y. , last4=Anthony , first4=D. , last5=Rapson , first5=G. L. , title=The endemic tree ''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' (karaka) as a weedy invader in forest remnants of southern North Island, New Zealand , journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany , publisher=Informa UK Limited , volume=44 , issue=1 , year=2006 , issn=0028-825X , doi=10.1080/0028825x.2006.9513002 , pages=5–22 , doi-access=free
* {{cite journal , last=Degener , first=Otto , last2=Degener , first2=Isa , title=Flora of Hawaii , journal= Kew Bulletin , publisher=Springer, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew , volume=19 , issue=2 , year=1965 , issn=00755974 , jstor=4108039 , pages=206–206 , url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4108039 , access-date=5 November 2024
* {{cite journal , last=Dodgson , first=Neil , last2=Chen , first2=Yen-Hsin , last3=Zahido , first3=Meimuna , title=The colonisation of the colour pink: variation and change in Māori's colour lexicon , date=2024 , doi=10.25455/WGTN.27931935 , url=https://openaccess.wgtn.ac.nz/articles/journal_contribution/The_colonisation_of_the_colour_pink_variation_and_change_in_M_ori_s_colour_lexicon/27931935 , journal=Linguistics, access-date=10 May 2025
* {{cite journal , last=Garnock-Jones , first=P. J. , last2=Brockie , first2=R. E. , last3=FitzJohn , first3=R. G. , title=Gynodioecy, sexual dimorphism and erratic fruiting in ''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' (Corynocarpaceae) , url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/BT/BT07054 , url-access=subscription , journal=Australian Journal of Botany , publisher=CSIRO Publishing , volume=55 , issue=8 , year=2007 , issn=0067-1924 , doi=10.1071/bt07054
* {{cite journal , last=Hemsley , first=W. Botting , title=On the Genus Corynocarpus, Forst., with Descriptions of two New Species , journal=Annals of Botany , volume=os-17 , issue=4 , date=1903 , issn=1095-8290 , doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a088941 , doi-access=free , pages=743–760
* {{cite journal , last1=Majak , first1=Walter , last2=Benn , first2=Michael , title=Additional esters of 3-nitropropanoic acid and glucose from fruit of the New Zealand karaka tree, ''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' , url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031942200906356?via%3Dihub , url-access=subscription , journal=Phytochemistry , date=March 1994 , volume=35 , issue=4 , pages=901–903 , doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90635-6
* {{cite journal , last=Maxwell , first=Justin J. , title=Conservation and Restoration of a Cultural Forest Landscape: Protecting the Forests Created by Moriori on Chatham Island , url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13505033.2017.1342070 , url-access=subscription , journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites , volume=19 , issue=3 , date=3 July 2017 , issn=1350-5033 , doi=10.1080/13505033.2017.1342070 , pages=197–209
* {{cite journal , last=McAlpine , first=Kate G. , last2=Cory , first2=Sally , last3=Cox , first3=Bart Te Manihera , last4=McLeod (Taranaki Whānui) , first4=Terese , last5=Rapson , first5=Gillian , last6=Roskruge (Te Ātiawa, Ngāti Tama) , first6=Nick Rahiri , last7=Shepherd , first7=Lara D. , title=Karaka (''Corynocarpus laevigatus''): native taonga (treasure) or environmental weed? , journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany , publisher=Informa UK Limited , date=5 September 2024 , issn=0028-825X , doi=10.1080/0028825x.2024.2388751 , doi-access=free , pages=1–26
* {{cite journal , last=Maxwell , first=Justin J. , last2=Tromp , first2=Monica , title=Corynocarpus laevigatus: Where art thou? Finding evidence of this elusive tree crop , url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0034666716301038 , url-access=subscription , journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology , volume=234 , date=2016 , doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2016.09.009 , pages=198–210
* {{cite journal , last=Moyer , first=Barton G. , last2=Pfeffer , first2=Philip E. , last3=Valentine , first3=Kathleen M. , last4=Gustine , first4=David L. , title=3-Nitropropanoyl-d-glucopyranoses of ''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' , journal=Phytochemistry , volume=18 , issue=1 , date=1979 , doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90925-7 , pages=111–113 , url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031942200909257 , url-access=subscription , access-date=20 April 2025
* {{cite journal , last=Obike , first=Anthony I. , last2=Eze , first2=K.S. , last3=Abdel-Rahman , first3=Ibrahim , last4=Ikeuba , first4=Alexander I. , last5=Nwokolo , first5=Izuchukwu K. , last6=Aghalibe , first6=Christopher , title=Evaluation of ''Corynocarpus laevigatus'' extract as a green corrosion retardant for mild steel in acidic media: A combined gravimetric, gasometric and electrochemical methods , journal=Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry , volume=10 , date=2025 , doi=10.1016/j.crgsc.2025.100447 , doi-access=free , page=100447
* {{cite journal , last1=Skey , first1=W. , year=1871 , title=Preliminary Notes on the Isolation of the Bitter Substance of the Nut of the Karaka Tree (''Corynocarpus lævigata'') , journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute , volume=4 , pages=316–321 , url=http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_04/rsnz_04_00_002360.html , access-date=22 May 2013 , via=Papers Past
* {{cite journal , last=Wagstaff , first=Steven J. , last2=Dawson , first2=Murray I. , title=Classification, Origin, and Patterns of Diversification of Corynocarpus (Corynocarpaceae) Inferred from DNA Sequences , journal= Systematic Botany , publisher=American Society of Plant Taxonomists , volume=25 , issue=1 , year=2000 , issn=03636445 , jstor=2666679 , pages=134–149 , doi=10.2307/2666679 , url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2666679 , url-access=subscription , access-date=9 February 2025
* {{cite journal , last=Wyse , first=Sarah V. , last2=Perry , first2=George L. W. , last3=O'Connell , first3=Dean M. , last4=Holland , first4=Phillip S. , last5=Wright , first5=Monique J. , last6=Hosted , first6=Catherine L. , last7=Whitelock , first7=Samuel L. , last8=Geary , first8=Ian J. , last9=Maurin , first9=Kévin J. L. , last10=Curran , first10=Timothy J. , title=A quantitative assessment of shoot flammability for 60 tree and shrub species supports rankings based on expert opinion , journal=International Journal of Wildland Fire , volume=25 , issue=4 , date=2016 , issn=1049-8001 , doi=10.1071/WF15047 , doi-access=free , page=466 , url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/wf/pdf/WF15047 , access-date=12 June 2025
{{Refend
Websites
{{Refbegin, 30em
* {{Cite web , title=Distant celestial objects now 'Kererū' and 'Karaka' , url=https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2019/12/18/distant-celestial-objects-now-kereru-and-karaka.html , last=Betson , first=Anne , date=18 December 2019 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301215150/https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2019/12/18/distant-celestial-objects-now-kereru-and-karaka.html , archive-date=1 March 2024 , access-date=19 January 2025 , website=University of Auckland
* {{cite web , last=De Lange , first=Peter , title=Corynocarpus laevigatus, url=https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/corynocarpus-laevigatus/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509041724/https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/corynocarpus-laevigatus/ , archive-date=9 May 2024, date=15 January 2012 , website=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network , url-status=live, access-date=5 November 2024
* {{Cite web , title=Corynocarpus laevigatus - Plants of Hawaiʻi , url=https://www.plantsofhawaii.org/detail/%7BFDF5D432-FF02-49B0-BAED-0D6F5DF929E0%7D , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218114435/https://www.plantsofhawaii.org/detail/%7BFDF5D432-FF02-49B0-BAED-0D6F5DF929E0%7D , archive-date=18 December 2024 , url-status=live , last=Gallaher , first=TJ , access-date=19 January 2025 , website=Plants of Hawaiʻi , last2=Brock , first2=K , last3=Kennedy , first3=BH , last4=Imada , first4=CT , last5=Imada , first5=K , last6=Walvoord , first6=N , year=2020
* {{Cite news , title=How to prepare the delicious – but poisonous – karaka berry , last=Kerridge , first=Donna , date=14 February 2018 , url=https://thespinoff.co.nz/atea/14-02-2018/how-to-prepare-the-delicious-but-poisonous-karaka-berry , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510095241/https://thespinoff.co.nz/atea/14-02-2018/how-to-prepare-the-delicious-but-poisonous-karaka-berry , archive-date=10 May 2024 , access-date=19 January 2025 , work=The Spinoff
* {{Cite web , title=Karaka — Te Aka Māori Dictionary , url=https://maoridictionary.co.nz/word/2273 , last=Moorfield , first=John , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203030156/https://maoridictionary.co.nz/word/2273 , archive-date=3 February 2022 , access-date=19 January 2025 , website=Te Aka Māori Dictionary , ref={{SfnRef, Te Aka Māori Dictionary
* {{Cite web , title=Corynocarpus laevigatus (karaka) , url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.59069 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218114732/https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.59069 , archive-date=18 December 2024 , url-status=live , last=Rapson , first=J. L. , date=24 November 2012 , access-date=19 January 2025 , website= CAB International
* {{Cite news , title=Karaka tree a great native, but beware the danger that lurks beneath , last=Saggers , first=Christio , date=17 March 2017 , url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/home-property/90491876/karaka-tree-a-great-native-but-beware-the-danger-that-lurks-beneath , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714022614/https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/home-property/90491876/karaka-tree-a-great-native-but-beware-the-danger-that-lurks-beneath , archive-date=14 July 2023 , access-date=19 January 2025 , work=The Marlborough Express
* {{Cite news , title=Pākaraka name returns to Whanganui village , last=Tahana , first=Jamie , date=19 February 2022 , url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/461872/pakaraka-name-returns-to-whanganui-village , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219034256/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/461872/pakaraka-name-returns-to-whanganui-village , archive-date=19 February 2022 , access-date=19 January 2025 , work=Radio New Zealand
* {{Cite news , title=Karaka trees fruiting again producing toxic berries , last=Willis , first=Rosalie , date=12 February 2020 , url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kapiti-news/news/karaka-trees-fruiting-again-producing-toxic-berries/WNNZF52JNOGYEZCAGR2CRNFDEM/ , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126131816/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kapiti-news/news/karaka-trees-fruiting-again-producing-toxic-berries/WNNZF52JNOGYEZCAGR2CRNFDEM/ , archive-date=26 November 2020 , access-date=19 January 2025 , work=Kapiti News , publisher=New Zealand Herald
{{Refend

External links

* {{Commons category-inline

{{Taxonbar, from=Q5477982
{{Authority control

Corynocarpaceae
Trees of New Zealand
Ornamental trees
Plants described in 1776
Austronesian agriculture
Plants used in traditional Māori medicine