''Chenopodium pallidicaule'', known as cañihua, canihua or cañahua (from Quechua 'qañiwa, qañawa or qañawi') and also kañiwa or kaniwa, is a species of goosefoot, similar in character and uses to the closely related

quinoa Quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa''; , from Quechuan languages, Quechua ' or ') is a flowering plant in the Amaranthaceae, amaranth family. It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are high in prote ...

(''Chenopodium quinoa''). Cañihua is native to the Andean region, with more than 200 varieties, and it has been farmed in the

Altiplano The Altiplano (Spanish language, Spanish for "high plain"), Collao (Quechuan languages, Quechua and Aymara language, Aymara: Qullaw, meaning "place of the Qulla people, Qulla") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the most extens ...

for millennia. As a crop, cañihua has distinct characteristics, including tolerance of high mountain conditions, high content of

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...

and

dietary fiber Dietary fiber (fibre in English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical co ...

, and rich phenolic content.

Description

Cañihua is a herbaceous and

annual plant An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. Globally, 6% of all plant species and 15% of herbaceous plants (excluding trees and shrubs) are ...

. This species is

diploid Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Here ''sets of chromosomes'' refers to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, ...

with a chromosome number of 2n = 18. There are two types of this species, which differ in their branching. The ''lasta'' type shows high branching, whereas the ''saguia'' type is characterized by few branching and its more erected growth.Hemandez, Esteban J. (1994). ''Neglected crops:1492 from a different perspective''. Rome: FAO. . The plant grows to high and is therefore shorter than its close relative

. Cañihua also vary from quinoa in its

inflorescence In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...

and its flower traits. The inflorescences are situated on the terminal and axillar cimas. The flowers are small and without

petal Petals are modified leaves that form an inner whorl surrounding the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly coloured or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''corol ...

s. There are three different types of flower.

Hermaphrodite A hermaphrodite () is a sexually reproducing organism that produces both male and female gametes. Animal species in which individuals are either male or female are gonochoric, which is the opposite of hermaphroditic. The individuals of many ...

consists of both the

stamen The stamen (: stamina or stamens) is a part consisting of the male reproductive organs of a flower. Collectively, the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament ...

and the

pistils Gynoecium (; ; : gynoecia) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl (botany), whorl of a flower; it consists ...

. Another flower type are the pistillate flowers, which have pistils, but no stamens. The third type of flower are male sterile flowers. The

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...

s are small and dark, which contain brown or black

seed In botany, a seed is a plant structure containing an embryo and stored nutrients in a protective coat called a ''testa''. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be Sowing, sown, which may include seed and husk or tuber. Seeds ...

with a diameter of 0.5 to 1.5 mm. The fruits are

deciduous In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...

, which means that the seeds are lost spontaneously and are then dispersed. Once maturation is reached, the plant stem and leaves change in colour to yellow, red, green or purple.

Genetics

Cañihua is a member of the Goosefoot family (

Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae ( ) is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus '' Amaranthus''. It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, maki ...

) and falls under the '' Chenopodium'' species, the genus comprises 150 herbaceous flowering plants. The plant belongs to the

pseudocereals A pseudocereal or pseudograin is one of any non-grasses that are used in much the same way as cereals (true cereals are grasses). Pseudocereals can be further distinguished from other non-cereal staple crops (such as potatoes) by their being proc ...

, similar to the increasingly popular quinoa ('' Chenopodium quinoa'') and is closely related to it. Cañihua (AA, 2n = 2x = 18) is a

A-Genome relative of the allotetraploid quinoa (AABB, 2n = 4x = 36 ). Quinoa's genome represents a recent polyploidization event between North American and Eurasian diploid species donating the A and B subgenomes of modern quinoa, respectively. The South American Cañihua is not believed to be the direct A genome donor for Quinoa but a close relative to it.

Breeding

The

pseudocereal A pseudocereal or pseudograin is one of any non-grasses that are used in much the same way as cereals (true cereals are grasses). Pseudocereals can be further distinguished from other non-cereal staple crops (such as potatoes) by their being pr ...

is considered a semi-domesticated plant by many researchers. Initiating genetic enhancement efforts for cañihua is necessary for the continued or intensified cultivation of this crop. The plant shows morphologically weedy characteristics, non-uniform maturation, and tendency to sheed shattering. A further agronomic issue is the small seed size that makes harvesting and processing of the seed difficult. Breeding goals are to increase the plant height and non-shattering behaviour, among other characteristics. Since 2019 a whole assembly reference genome for cañihua is available and renewed interest in improving agronomic properties using modern plant breeding is expected by experts.

Domestication

Cañihua is considered a semi-domesticated plant by many researchers. Nevertheless, clear distinctions between wild and cultivated lines can be shown

phylogenetically In biology, phylogenetics () is the study of the evolutionary history of life using observable characteristics of organisms (or genes), which is known as phylogenetic inference. It infers the relationship among organisms based on empirical data ...

. ''Chenopodium pallidicaule'' was domesticated by the Tiwanaku culture, a pre-Columbian civilization that thrived in the Andean

. The lacustrine region of

Lake Titicaca Lake Titicaca (; ; ) is a large freshwater lake in the Andes mountains on the border of Bolivia and Peru. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world. Titicaca is the largest lake in South America, both in terms of the volume of ...

is considered the centre of origin – it is there where genetic variability in cañihua is still greatest. Morphological seed inquiries and bibliographic reviews suggest that domestication could have occurred 3'500 years before present. In archaeological sites remains of cañihua starches are found with an age of 5'000 to 3'200 years. Other sources date the cultivation as far back as 7'000 years. The exact history of domestication remains speculative. After the Spanish Conquest cultivation of cañihua was discouraged due to its association with indigenous cultures. Today cañihua remains confined to Peru and Bolivia and the crop has not spread outside the arid highland regions. It is cultivated in the Peruvian Sierra zone and in the

of Bolivia, with the Punio department being particularly significant for cañihua cultivation.

Cultivars

In the Peruvian highlands approximately 50 different genotypes are sown. There are different ways by which cañihua varieties are differentiated and the naming may vary by region. A possible discrimination is by coloration of seeds or fluorescence into ''Wila'' (red), ''Q’illu'' (yellow), ''Janq’u'' (white), ''Chiara'' (black) and others. Another common classification involves distinguishing varieties by their growth habitat. ''Saiwa'' varieties display an upright growth habit, ''Last’as'' exhibit a semi-prostrate one, and ''Pampa Last'as'' have a prostrate growth habit, growing close to or along the ground. ''Saiwa'' types are well-suited for hillsides due to their lodging tolerance, while ''Last’as'' materials are preferable in plains. The majority of cultivated landraces belong to the ''Last’as'' type. There are only a few improved landraces of or even

cultivars A cultivar is a kind of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and which retains those traits when propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue cult ...

of cañihua. In Peru, the National Institute for Agricultural Innovation (INIA) has selected four landraces with favorable agronomic characteristics: ''Cupis, Ramis,'' and ''Illpa INIA 406''. In Bolivia there are three improved varieties belonging to the ''Last’as'' type: ''Kullaca, Illimani'' and the most resent ''Qañawiri.'' Improved landraces typically show outstanding yield and reduced risk of grain losses in the maturity stage and during harvest. There is an ongoing conservation effort for the genetic diversity of cañihua in Peru. The germplasm banks of Camacani-UNA-Puno and Illpa-INIA-Puno currently house 430 unique samples from specific locations, accompanied by passport data and agronomic and morphological characterizations.

Cultivation

Cañihua is a half-domesticated plant from the highlands of Bolivia and Peru,Tapia ME & Fries AM (2007). Guía de campo de los cultivos Andinos, Origen de las plantas cultivadas en los Andes, Chapt. I. Eds.: FAO & ANPE-PERU, Rome & Lima. . http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai185s/ai185s01.pdf . cultivated as a pseudocereal crop for its seeds.FAO (2007). Ecocrop – Chenopodium pallidicaule, Data sheet. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=4494 . Both seeds and leaves are edible.Plants For A Future (2007). Chenopodium pallidicaule. http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+pallidicaule. The plant was often cultivated in South America in the past. More than 200 varieties are known in Bolivia, but only twenty are still in use, with a majority of farmers cultivating just one.Bioversity International (2013). Creating markets for orphan crops, Bioversity International supports marketing link in food value chain. CGIAR.

Environmental requirements

Cañihua is well-adapted to the Andean climate and therefore cold-resistant in all growth stages. Adult plants are also resistant to night frosts. In vegetative stage, the plant may survive until –10 °C, flowers until –3 °C and is growing until temperatures up to 28 °C at sufficient humidity.Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species (n.d.). CAÑIHUA (Chenopodium pallidicaule), Enabling deployment of underutilized species. CGIAR. http://www.underutilized-species.org/species/brochures/Canihua.pdf Cañihua can be grown from 1500 m up to 4400 m, but is rarely cultivated below 3800 m. The plant exhibits a high resistance to abiotic stressors. Cañihua can tolerate drought as it is adapted to low rainfall and dry conditions. With a growing season precipitation of 500 to 800 mm, irrigation becomes unnecessary. Furthermore, Cañihua displays resilience to saline conditions, often prevalent in areas with fast-growing populations and low water availability. Cañihua can be grown in any type of moderately fertile soil, including shallow, acidic and alkaline soils. Cañihua tolerates a broad spectrum of high and low temperatures and is not affected by frost. Also, its seeds germinate at low temperatures. However, the plant does not grow well in the shade, near the sea or in excessively humid conditions.

Plant development

As an annual crop, cañihua reaches maturity in 95 to 150 days, depending on variety. Germinating starts at soil temperatures of 5 °C. Flowering happens from July to October at temperatures around 10 °C and ripening from August to October at 15 °C.

Harvesting and post-harvesting

Cañihua has to be harvested at colour change, before full maturation, to prevent high yield losses due to seed scattering. The crop has to be cut, dried and threshed by hand or using a wheat thresher. Papery husks enclose the seeds and have to be washed and rubbed away. Average seed yield is 400–900 kg/ha in traditional cropping systems. In intensive systems, yields of 2–3 t can be obtained. 1,000–kernel weight (weight in grams of 1,000 seeds) is only 480 mg, compared to 1,900–4,000 mg of quinoa.Simmonds NW (1965). The Grain Chenopods of the Tropical American Highlands. Vol. 19 (Iss. 3). pp. 223 – 235, Economic Botany. Springer.

Potential and risks

Cañihua is often considered as a forgotten crop once widely used in the Andes, but now replaced by other crops such as

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae. Millets are important crops in the Semi-arid climate, ...

. Today, cañihua has significance only at higher altitudes, where neither quinoa nor millet can grow. There are numerous native varieties in the Peruvian highlands, some have beneficial agronomic charactersitics. The varieties are interesting for inclusion in breeding programs, aimed to enhance the adaptability of cañihua for cultivation on larger scales. So far limited investment has been made into the agronomic improvement of cañihua. One possible reason could be that the Amaranthaceae family consists of plants with comparable characteristics, resulting in potential market competition. On the other hand, the success of

and the increasing demand for it in western countries, could facilitate the entry to the global market. Compared to quinoa, the value chain of cañihua from producers to both rural and urban markets is underdeveloped. For the rural livelihoods in South America cañihua has potential regarding food security, nutrition and self-reliance. The crop was experimentally produced in

Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...

and showed good results. The risk of outcrossing is very small, as cañihua is self-pollinating. The risk of becoming invasive remains. As normally grown under harsh conditions with low weed pressure, this crop could suffer yield losses in varying climates. To overcome the higher weed pressure, planting in rows can facilitate weeding. Further research is required for improving fertilization, and thus increasing yields. Locally there are good results with sheep manure and nearly no fertilizer needs to be applied in crop rotations with potatoes. The most important breeding aims are the reduction of seed scattering and increased seed size.

Uses

Cañihua can easily be milled to flour and can be prepared further as a toasted cañihua flour called ''cañihuaco''. Cañihuaco has a nutty taste and can be mixed with water and milk for a breakfast meal. Since it is rich in calories and proteins, local people take it on long travels. Additionally, cañihua flour can be used for a lot of other purposes such as bread-making, pastry-making and noodle-making. Some varieties of cañihua can even be included in sweets, snacks and weaning food mixtures. The cooking and extrusion technology tests have already shown successful results in several countries. This technology present numerous advantages such as low cost, simple operation, moderate production volume, minimum auxiliary equipment, versatility, good sanitary conditions and easy management. Results from a study demonstrated that the initial moisture content of 12% was optimal to obtain an extrudate with good physicochemical characteristics (e.g. degree of gelatinization, sectional expansion index, water absorption index, water solubility index and density). Additionally, roasting does not significantly affect the dialysability of nutritionally valuable minerals in qañiwa. Boiling, however, was found to increase zinc, iron and calcium dialysability.

Importance for food security

Cañihua is an important crop for

food security Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy Human food, food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Simila ...

in the Andean region where there are nutritional problems. The most affected group are rural families having limited access to commodities due to poverty and droughts. Cañihua is both easily accessible and drought-resistant, offering potential food and income for highland farmers. In order to alleviate problems of food security, new food-processing technologies and products are being developed to encourage companies to process native Andean crops and to increase their consumption as well as open market opportunities using cañihua.

Nutrition

The indigenous Andean food crops, ''quinoa'' ('' Chenopodium quinoa''), ''kiwicha'' ('' Amaranthus caudatus'') and ''cañihua'' have high nutritional value based mainly on their considerable protein content and dietary fiber value. Their protein, calcium, zinc and iron content is higher than that of more widely commercialized cereals. The protein content (15.3%) of cañihua grain is higher than that of quinoa and kiwicha, and similar to

wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...

(12.6%) and

oats The oat (''Avena sativa''), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop, as their seed ...

(16.9%). The

proteins Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, re ...

of cañihua mainly belong to the

albumin Albumin is a family of globular proteins, the most common of which are the serum albumins. All of the proteins of the albumin family are water- soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Alb ...

and the globulin type. These two protein types are non-glutens and have a very good amino acid balance. The grains contain all nine essential amino acids thus

lysine Lysine (symbol Lys or K) is an α-amino acid that is a precursor to many proteins. Lysine contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated form when the lysine is dissolved in water at physiological pH), an α-carboxylic acid group ( ...

histidine Histidine (symbol His or H) is an essential amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an Amine, α-amino group (which is in the protonated –NH3+ form under Physiological condition, biological conditions), a carboxylic ...

threonine Threonine (symbol Thr or T) is an amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH form when dissolved in water), a carboxyl group (which is in the deprotonated −COO− ...

methionine Methionine (symbol Met or M) () is an essential amino acid in humans. As the precursor of other non-essential amino acids such as cysteine and taurine, versatile compounds such as SAM-e, and the important antioxidant glutathione, methionine play ...

valine Valine (symbol Val or V) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α- amino group (which is in the protonated −NH3+ form under biological conditions), an α- carboxylic acid group (which is in the deproton ...

isoleucine Isoleucine (symbol Ile or I) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the depro ...

leucine Leucine (symbol Leu or L) is an essential amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Leucine is an α-amino acid, meaning it contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH3+ form under biological conditions), an α-Car ...

phenylalanine Phenylalanine (symbol Phe or F) is an essential α-amino acid with the chemical formula, formula . It can be viewed as a benzyl group substituent, substituted for the methyl group of alanine, or a phenyl group in place of a terminal hydrogen of ...

and

tryptophan Tryptophan (symbol Trp or W) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromat ...

and meet the children's and adults' daily requirements for essential amino acids. They are especially rich in sulfur

amino acids Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although over 500 amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the Proteinogenic amino acid, 22 α-amino acids incorporated into p ...

and aromatic amino acids. The

lipids Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds which include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins Vitamin A, A, Vitamin D, D, Vitamin E, E and Vitamin K, K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The fu ...

consist mainly of unsaturated fatty acids. The unsaturated fatty acids account for 71.4% of the total

lipid Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds which include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids include storing ...

content in cañihua. They consist of high concentrations of

linoleic acid Linoleic acid (LA) is an organic compound with the formula . Both alkene groups () are ''cis''. It is a fatty acid sometimes denoted 18:2 (n−6) or 18:2 ''cis''-9,12. A linoleate is a salt or ester of this acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsat ...

(39.2%), an omega-6 fatty acid which is essential for human health, and

oleic acid Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish due to the presence of impurities. In chemical terms, oleic acid is cl ...

(28.6%), an omega-9 fatty acid. Generally,

polyunsaturated fatty acids In biochemistry and nutrition, a polyunsaturated fat is a fat that contains a polyunsaturated fatty acid (abbreviated PUFA), which is a subclass of fatty acid characterized by a backbone with two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Some polyunsa ...

are the most abundant followed by monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids. As an Andean grain, cañihua has a high content of

carbohydrates A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. The typical hydrogen-to-oxygen atomic ratio is 2:1, analogous to that of water, and is represented by the empirical formula (where ''m'' and ''n'' ma ...

with

starch Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diet ...

as the most prevalent sugar. With percentages of 1% of

glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecular formula , which is often abbreviated as Glc. It is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. It is mainly made by plants and most algae d ...

, 2% of

sucrose Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula . For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined ...

and 1% of

maltose } Maltose ( or ), also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond. In the isomer isomaltose, the two glucose molecules are joined with an α(1→6) bond. Maltose is the tw ...

, amounts of free sugars are rather small, but slightly higher than those of quinoa or

amaranth ''Amaranthus'' is a cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual plant, annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some names include "prostrate pigweed" an ...

. Unlike quinoa, cañihua contains a lower amount of the bitter tasting

saponins Saponins (Latin ''sapon'', 'soap' + ''-in'', 'one of') are bitter-tasting, usually toxic plant-derived secondary metabolites. They are Organic compound, organic chemicals that become foamy when agitated in water and have high Molar mass, molecul ...

which affect taste and texture. Furthermore, cañihua is considered as a good source of

thiamine Thiamine, also known as thiamin and vitamin B1, is a vitamin – an Nutrient#Micronutrients, essential micronutrient for humans and animals. It is found in food and commercially synthesized to be a dietary supplement or medication. Phosp ...

riboflavin Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is a vitamin found in food and sold as a dietary supplement. It is essential to the formation of two major coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide. These coenzymes are involved in ...

, niacin and

vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription di ...

Reference list

External links

Cañihua, In: Andean Grains and Legumes, Purdue University, 1994

''Chenopodium pallidicaule'', Plants for a Future, 2007

Cañihua, Crops for the Future, 2013
{{Taxonbar, from=Q2351541 pallidicaule Flora of western South America Flora of Peru Crops originating from South America Pseudocereals