Kalidasa Lui
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Kālidāsa (, "Servant of
Kali Kali (; , ), also called Kalika, is a major goddess in Hinduism, primarily associated with time, death and destruction. Kali is also connected with transcendental knowledge and is the first of the ten Mahavidyas, a group of goddesses who p ...
"; 4th–5th century CE) was a
Classical Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest ...
author who is often considered
ancient India Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentism, Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; ...
's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on Hindu and philosophy. His surviving works consist of three plays, two epic poems and two shorter poems. Much about his life is unknown except what can be inferred from his poetry and plays. His works cannot be dated with precision, but they were most likely authored before the 5th century CE during the
Gupta era The Gupta era is a historical calendar era that begins from –319 CE. It was used by the Gupta emperors, as well as their vassals and their successors in present-day northern India and Nepal. It is identical to the Vallabhi era (or Valabhi era ...
. Kalidas is mentioned as one of the seven
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
avatars in
Dasam Granth The ( Gurmukhi: ਦਸਮ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ''dasama gratha'') is a collection of various poetic compositions attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.
, written by
Guru Gobind Singh Guru Gobind Singh (; born Gobind Das; 22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708) was the tenth and last human Sikh gurus, Sikh Guru. He was a warrior, poet, and philosopher. In 1675, at the age of nine he was formally installed as the leader of the ...
.


Early life

Scholars have speculated that Kālidāsa may have lived near the
Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya ( ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than list of h ...
, in the vicinity of
Ujjain Ujjain (, , old name Avantika, ) or Ujjayinī is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative as well as religious centre of Ujjain ...
, and in Kalinga. This hypothesis is based on Kālidāsa's detailed description of the Himalayas in his '' Kumārasambhavam'', the display of his love for
Ujjain Ujjain (, , old name Avantika, ) or Ujjayinī is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative as well as religious centre of Ujjain ...
in ''
Meghadūta ''Meghadūta'' (, literally ''Cloud Messenger'') is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa (c. 4th–5th century CE), considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. It describes how a '' yakṣa'' (or nature spirit), who had been banished by ...
'', and his highly eulogistic descriptions of Kalingan emperor Hemāngada in ''
Raghuvaṃśa (Devanagari: , lit. 'lineage of Raghu') is a Sanskrit epic poem ('' mahakavya'') by the celebrated Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Though an exact date of composition is unknown, the poet is presumed to have flourished in the 5th century CE. It narrat ...
'' (sixth ''sarga''). In the
Mithila region Mithila (), also known as Tirhut, Tirabhukti and Mithilanchal, is a geographical and cultural region of the Indian subcontinent bounded by the Mahananda River in the east, the Ganges in the south, the Gandaki River in the west and by the foothil ...
, the birthplace of Kalidasa is considered at the
Kalidas Dih Kalidas Dih () is a historical and holy place located approximately in Uchchaith Sthan village in the Madhubani district of the Mithila region in state of Bihar in India. It is associated with the Sanskrit scholar, playwright and dramatist Kalid ...
in the Uchchaith village of the
Benipatti Benipatti is a town and headquarter of sub-division Benipatti in the Madhubani district of the Mithila region in Bihar, India. The native language of Benipatti is Maithili, while the official languages are Hindi and Urdu. In the early times, Beni ...
block in the
Madhubani district Madhubani district is one of the thirty-eight districts of Bihar, India, and is a part of Darbhanga division. Its administrative headquarters are located in Madhubani. The district has an area of and has a population of 4,487,379 (as of 20 ...
. Lakshmi Dhar Kalla (1891–1953), a Sanskrit scholar and a
Kashmiri Pandit The Kashmiri Pandits (also known as Kashmiri Brahmins) are a group of Kashmiri Hindus and a part of the larger Saraswat Brahmin community of India. They belong to the Pancha Gauda Brahmin group from the Kashmir Valley, located within the In ...
, wrote a book titled ''The birth-place of Kalidasa'' (1926), which tries to trace the birthplace of Kālidāsa based on his writings. He concluded that Kālidāsa was born in
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
, but moved southwards, and sought the patronage of local rulers to prosper. The evidence cited by him from Kālidāsa's writings includes: * Description of flora and fauna that is found in Kashmir, but not in Ujjain or Kalinga: the
saffron Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of '' Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent ...
plant, the deodar trees,
musk deer Musk deer can refer to any one, or all eight, of the species that make up ''Moschus'', the only extant genus of the family (biology), family Moschidae. Despite being commonly called deer, they are not true deer belonging to the family Cervidae, b ...
etc. * Description of geographical features common to Kashmir, such as
tarns A tarn (or corrie loch) is a mountain lake, pond or pool, formed in a cirque (or "corrie") excavated by a glacier. A moraine may form a natural dam below a tarn. Etymology The word is derived from the Old Norse word ''tjörn'' ("a small mou ...
and glades * Mention of some sites of minor importance that, according to Kalla, can be identified with places in Kashmir. These sites are not very famous outside Kashmir, and therefore, could not have been known to someone not in close touch with Kashmir. * Reference to certain legends of Kashmiri origin, such as that of the
Nikumbha Nikumbha () is the name of multiple beings in Hindu mythology, a rakshasa and a Danava (Hinduism), danava. Legend Rakshasa Nikumbha Nikumbha, the rakshasa, is the son of Kumbhakarna and Vajramala. He is instructed by Kubera to watch over th ...
(mentioned in the Kashmiri text '' Nīlamata Purāṇa''); mention (in ''Shakuntala'') of the legend about Kashmir being created from a lake. This legend, mentioned in ''Nīlamata Purāṇa'', states that a tribal leader named Ananta drained a lake to kill a demon. Ananta named the site of the former lake (now land) as "Kashmir", after his father Kaśyapa. * According to Kalla, ''Śakuntalā'' is an allegorical dramatization of
Pratyabhijna Pratyabhijñā or Pratyabhigyā () is an idealistic, monistic, and theistic school of philosophy in Kashmir Shaivism which originated in the ninth century CE. The name of the system is derived from its most famous work, ''Īśvara-pratyabhij ...
philosophy (a branch of
Kashmir Shaivism Kashmir Shaivism tradition is a 20th century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit exegetical literature from several Nondualism, non-dualist Shaivism, Shaiva-Shaktism, Shakta Tantra, tantric and Monism, monistic religious t ...
). Kalla further argues that this branch was not known outside of Kashmir at that time. Another old legend recounts that Kālidāsa visits Kumāradāsa, the king of
Lanka Lanka (; ) is the name given in Hindu epics to the island fortress capital of the legendary Rakshasa king Ravana in the epics of the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata''. The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks kn ...
and, because of treachery, is murdered there.


Period

Several ancient and medieval books state that Kālidāsa was a court poet of a king named
Vikramāditya Vikramaditya (Sanskrit: विक्रमादित्य IAST: ') was a legendary king as mentioned in ancient Indian literature, featuring in traditional stories including those in '' Vetala Panchavimshati'' and '' Singhasan Battisi''. Ma ...
. A legendary king named
Vikramāditya Vikramaditya (Sanskrit: विक्रमादित्य IAST: ') was a legendary king as mentioned in ancient Indian literature, featuring in traditional stories including those in '' Vetala Panchavimshati'' and '' Singhasan Battisi''. Ma ...
is said to have ruled from Ujjain around the 1st century BCE. A section of scholars believe that this legendary
Vikramāditya Vikramaditya (Sanskrit: विक्रमादित्य IAST: ') was a legendary king as mentioned in ancient Indian literature, featuring in traditional stories including those in '' Vetala Panchavimshati'' and '' Singhasan Battisi''. Ma ...
is not a historical figure at all. There are other kings who ruled from Ujjain and adopted the title ''Vikramāditya'', the most notable ones being
Chandragupta II Chandragupta II (r.c. 375–415), also known by his title Vikramaditya, as well as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was an emperor of the Gupta Empire. Modern scholars generally identify him with King Chandra of the Iron pillar of Delhi, Delhi iron ...
(r. 380 CE – 415 CE) and Yaśodharman (6th century CE). The most popular theory is that Kālidāsa flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II, and therefore lived around the 4th-5th century CE. Several Western scholars have supported this theory, since the days of William Jones and
A. B. Keith Arthur Berriedale Keith, FBA (5 April 1879 – 6 October 1944) was a Scottish constitutional lawyer, scholar of Sanskrit and Indologist. He became Regius Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology and Lecturer on the Constitution of t ...
. Modern western Indologists and scholars like
Stanley Wolpert Stanley Albert Wolpert (December 23, 1927 – February 19, 2019) was an American historian, Indologist, and author on the political and intellectual history of modern India and PakistanDr. Stanley Wolpert's UCLA Faculty homepage and wrote fict ...
also support this theory. Many Indian scholars, such as
Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi (1893–1985) was a Sanskrit scholar and a prominent Indologist of the 20th century who hailed from Maharashtra, India. He was an expert of his times on stone and copper inscriptions and the coinage of ancient India. For ...
and Rāma Gupta, also place Kālidāsa in this period. According to this theory, his career might have extended to the reign of Kumāragupta I (r. 414 – 455 CE), and possibly, to that of
Skandagupta Skandagupta (Gupta script: ''Ska-nda-gu-pta'', r. –467) was a Gupta Empire, Gupta Emperor of India. His Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta, Bhitari pillar inscription suggests that he restored the Gupta power by defeating his enemies, ...
(r. 455 – 467 CE). The earliest paleographical evidence of Kālidāsa is found in a Sanskrit inscription dated , found at
Mandsaur Mandsaur is a city and a municipality in Mandsaur district located on the border of Mewar and Malwa regions of Madhya Pradesh, a state in Central India. It is the administrative headquarters of Mandsaur District. The ancient Pashupatinath Tem ...
's Sun temple, with some verses that appear to imitate
Meghadūta ''Meghadūta'' (, literally ''Cloud Messenger'') is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa (c. 4th–5th century CE), considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. It describes how a '' yakṣa'' (or nature spirit), who had been banished by ...
Purva, 66; and the
Ṛtusaṃhāra ''Ṛtusaṃhāra'', often written ''Ritusamhara'', (Devanagari: ऋतुसंहार; ऋतु , "season"; संहार , "compilation") is a medium length Sanskrit poem.Lienhard, Siegfried (1984). ''A History of Classical Poetry: Sanskri ...
V, 2–3, although Kālidāsa is not named.. His name, along with that of the poet
Bhāravi Bharavi () was a 6th century Indian poet known for his epic poem ''Kirātārjunīya'', one of the six ''mahakavyas'' in classical Sanskrit. Date According to multiple grant inscriptions of the Ganga dynasty, such as the Gummareddipura insc ...
, is first mentioned the 634 CE
Aihole inscription The Aihole inscription, also known as the Aihole ''prashasti'', is a nineteen line Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India. A eulogy dated 634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his p ...
found in
Karnataka Karnataka ( ) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed as Mysore State on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, States Re ...
.


Theory of multiple Kālidāsas

Some scholars, including M. Srinivasachariar and T. S. Narayana Sastri, believe that works attributed to "Kālidāsa" are not by a single person. According to Srinivasachariar, writers from 8th and 9th centuries hint at the existence of three noted literary figures who share the name Kālidāsa. These writers include Devendra (author of ''Kavi-Kalpa-Latā''), Rājaśekhara and Abhinanda. Sastri lists the works of these three Kalidasas as follows: # Kālidāsa alias Mātṛgupta, author of ''Setu-Bandha'' and three plays (''
Abhijñānaśākuntalam ''Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (Devanagari: अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्, IAST: ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam''), also known as ''Shakuntala'', ''The Recognition of Shakuntala'', ''The Sign of Shakuntala'', and many other variant ...
'', ''
Mālavikāgnimitram The ''Mālavikāgnimitram'' (Sanskrit: मालविकाग्निमित्रम् , translation : ''Mālavikā and Agnimitra'') is a Sanskrit play by Kālidāsa. Based on some events of the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga, it is his first ...
'' and ''
Vikramōrvaśīyam ''Vikramōrvaśīyam'' () is a five-act Sanskrit play by ancient Indian poet Kālidāsa, who lived in the 4th or 5th Century CE, on the Vedic love story of King Pururavas and an Apsarā (celestial nymph) named Ūrvaśī, known for her beauty ...
''). # Kālidāsa alias Medharudra, author of '' Kumārasambhavam'', ''
Meghadūta ''Meghadūta'' (, literally ''Cloud Messenger'') is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa (c. 4th–5th century CE), considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. It describes how a '' yakṣa'' (or nature spirit), who had been banished by ...
'' and ''
Raghuvaṃśa (Devanagari: , lit. 'lineage of Raghu') is a Sanskrit epic poem ('' mahakavya'') by the celebrated Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Though an exact date of composition is unknown, the poet is presumed to have flourished in the 5th century CE. It narrat ...
''. # Kālidāsa alias Kotijit: author of ''
Ṛtusaṃhāra ''Ṛtusaṃhāra'', often written ''Ritusamhara'', (Devanagari: ऋतुसंहार; ऋतु , "season"; संहार , "compilation") is a medium length Sanskrit poem.Lienhard, Siegfried (1984). ''A History of Classical Poetry: Sanskri ...
'', ''Śyāmala-Daṇḍakam'' and ''Śṛngāratilaka'' among other works. Sastri goes on to mention six other literary figures known by the name "Kālidāsa": Parimala Kālidāsa alias Padmagupta (author of '' Navasāhasāṅka Carita''), Kālidāsa alias Yamakakavi (author of ''Nalodaya''), Nava Kālidāsa (author of ''Champu Bhāgavata''), Akbariya Kalidasa (author of several ''samasya''s or riddles), Kālidāsa VIII (author of ''Lambodara Prahasana''), and Abhinava Kālidāsa alias Mādhava (author of ''Saṅkṣepa-Śaṅkara-Vijayam''). According to K. Krishnamoorthy, "Vikramāditya" and "Kālidāsa" were used as common nouns to describe any patron king and any court poet, respectively.


Works


Epic poems

Kālidāsa is the author of two mahākāvyas, ''
Kumārasambhava ''Kumārasambhavam'' ''( ) (transl. - "The Birth of Kumāra")'' is an epic poem by Kālidāsa. It is widely regarded as the finest work of Kalidasa as well as the greatest kāvya poem in Classical Sanskrit. The style of description of spring set ...
'' (Kumāra meaning
Kartikeya Kartikeya (/Sanskrit phonology, kɑɾt̪ɪkejə/; ), also known as Skanda (Sanskrit phonology, /skən̪d̪ə/), Subrahmanya (/Sanskrit phonology, sʊbɾəɦməɲjə/, /ɕʊ-/), Shanmukha (Sanskrit phonology, /ɕɑnmʊkʰə/) and Murugan ...
, and sambhava meaning possibility of an event taking place, in this context a birth. Kumārasambhava thus means the birth of a Kartikeya) and ''
Raghuvaṃśa (Devanagari: , lit. 'lineage of Raghu') is a Sanskrit epic poem ('' mahakavya'') by the celebrated Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Though an exact date of composition is unknown, the poet is presumed to have flourished in the 5th century CE. It narrat ...
'' ("Dynasty of Raghu"). *''Kumārasambhava'' describes the birth and adolescence of the goddess
Pārvatī Parvati (, , IPA: / pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: / gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, d ...
, her marriage to
Śiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hinduism. Shiva is known as ''The Destroyer ...
and the subsequent birth of their son Kumāra (Kārtikeya). *''Raghuvaṃśa'' is an epic poem about the kings of the Raghu dynasty.


Minor poems

Kālidāsa also wrote the ''
Meghadūta ''Meghadūta'' (, literally ''Cloud Messenger'') is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa (c. 4th–5th century CE), considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. It describes how a '' yakṣa'' (or nature spirit), who had been banished by ...
'' (''The Cloud Messenger''), a ''khaṇḍakāvya'' (minor poem). It describes the story of a
Yakṣa The Yakshas (, , ) in Mythology are a broad class of nature spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness. They appear in Hindu, Jain and Budd ...
trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud. Kālidāsa set this poem to the
mandākrāntā (Sanskrit: ) is the name of a metre commonly used in classical Sanskrit poetry. The name in Sanskrit means "slow-stepping" or "slowly advancing". It is said to have been invented by India's most famous poet Kālidāsa, (5th century CE), who used it ...
metre, which is known for its lyrical sweetness. It is one of Kālidāsa's most popular poems and numerous commentaries on the work have been written. Kalidasa also wrote the shyamala Dandakam descripting the beauty of Goddess
Matangi Matangi (, ) is a Hindu goddess. She is one of the Mahavidyas, ten Tantric goddesses and an aspect of the Hindu Divine Mother. She is considered to be the Tantric form of Sarasvati, the goddess of music and learning. Matangi governs speech, ...
.


Plays

Kālidāsa wrote three plays. Among them, ''
Abhijñānaśākuntalam ''Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (Devanagari: अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्, IAST: ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam''), also known as ''Shakuntala'', ''The Recognition of Shakuntala'', ''The Sign of Shakuntala'', and many other variant ...
'' ("Of the recognition of Śakuntalā") is generally regarded as a masterpiece. It was among the first Sanskrit works to be translated into English, and has since been translated into many languages. *''
Mālavikāgnimitram The ''Mālavikāgnimitram'' (Sanskrit: मालविकाग्निमित्रम् , translation : ''Mālavikā and Agnimitra'') is a Sanskrit play by Kālidāsa. Based on some events of the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga, it is his first ...
'' (''Pertaining to Mālavikā and Agnimitra'') tells the story of King
Agnimitra Agnimitra (; ) was the second Shunga emperor who reigned over what is now northern and central India. He succeeded his father, the emperor Pushyamitra, in 149 BCE. The Vayu Purana and the Brahmanda Purana have assigned 8 years as the length o ...
, who falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Mālavikā. When the queen discovers her husband's passion for this girl, she becomes infuriated and has Mālavikā imprisoned, but as fate would have it, Mālavikā is in fact a true-born princess, thus legitimizing the affair. *''
Abhijñānaśākuntalam ''Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (Devanagari: अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्, IAST: ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam''), also known as ''Shakuntala'', ''The Recognition of Shakuntala'', ''The Sign of Shakuntala'', and many other variant ...
'' (''Of the recognition of Śakuntalā'') tells the story of King Duṣyanta who, while on a hunting trip, meets Śakuntalā, the adopted daughter of the sage Kanu and real daughter of
Vishwamitra Vishvamitra (, ) is one of the most venerated rishis or sages of ancient India. Vishvamitra is one of the seven Brahmarshi. According to Hindu tradition, he is stated to have written most of the Mandala 3 of the Rigveda, including the Ga ...
and
Menaka Menaka ( ) is a prominent figure in Hindu mythology, celebrated as one of the most beautiful apsaras (celestial nymphs) in the court of Indra, the king of the gods. She is frequently sent by the gods to disturb the penance of sages whose growin ...
and marries her. A mishap befalls them when he is summoned back to court: Śakuntala, pregnant with their child, inadvertently offends a visiting
Durvasa In Hindu scriptures, Durvasa (, ), also known as Durvasas (), is a legendary rishi (sage). He is the son of Anasuya and Atri. According to some Puranas, Durvasa is a partial avatar of Shiva, known for his short temper. Wherever he goes, he is ...
and incurs a curse, whereby Duṣyanta forgets her entirely until he sees the ring he has left with her. On her trip to Duṣyanta's court in an advanced state of
pregnancy Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestation, gestates inside a woman's uterus. A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. Conception (biology), Conception usually occurs ...
, she loses the ring, and has to come away unrecognized by him. The ring is found by a fisherman who recognizes the royal seal and returns it to Duṣyanta, who regains his memory of Śakuntala and sets out to find her.
Goethe Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath who is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. His work has had a wide-ranging influence on Western literature, literary, Polit ...
was fascinated by Kālidāsa's ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'', which became known in Europe, after being translated from English to German. *''
Vikramōrvaśīyam ''Vikramōrvaśīyam'' () is a five-act Sanskrit play by ancient Indian poet Kālidāsa, who lived in the 4th or 5th Century CE, on the Vedic love story of King Pururavas and an Apsarā (celestial nymph) named Ūrvaśī, known for her beauty ...
'' (''Ūrvaśī Won by Valour'') tells the story of King
Pururavas Pururavas (Sanskrit: पुरूरवस्, ''Purūravas'') is a character in Hindu literature, a king who served as the first of the Lunar dynasty. According to the Vedas, he is a legendary entity associated with Surya (the sun) and Usha ...
and celestial nymph Ūrvaśī who fall in love. As an immortal, she has to return to the heavens, where an unfortunate accident causes her to be sent back to the earth as a mortal with the curse that she will die (and thus return to heaven) the moment her lover lays his eyes on the child which she will bear him. After a series of mishaps, including Ūrvaśī's temporary transformation into a vine, the curse is lifted, and the lovers are allowed to remain together on the earth.


Translations

Montgomery Schuyler, Jr. published a bibliography of the editions and translations of the drama '' Śakuntalā'' while preparing his work "Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama".It was later published as the third volume of the 13-volume
Columbia University Indo-Iranian Series The ''Columbia University Indo-Iranian Series'' is a 13-volume book series edited by A. V. Williams Jackson and published by the Columbia University Press between 1901 and 1932. Volumes See also *''Harvard Oriental Series'' *Loeb Classical Lib ...
, published by the
Columbia University Press Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's la ...
in 1901-32 and edited by A. V. Williams Jackson.
Schuyler later completed his bibliography series of the dramatic works of Kālidāsa by compiling bibliographies of the editions and translations of ''
Vikramōrvaśīyam ''Vikramōrvaśīyam'' () is a five-act Sanskrit play by ancient Indian poet Kālidāsa, who lived in the 4th or 5th Century CE, on the Vedic love story of King Pururavas and an Apsarā (celestial nymph) named Ūrvaśī, known for her beauty ...
'' and '' Mālavikāgnimitra''. Sir William Jones published an English translation of ''Śakuntalā'' in 1791 CE and ''Ṛtusaṃhāra'' was published by him in original text during 1792 CE.


False attributions and false Kalidasas

According to Indologist Siegfried Lienhard:
A large number of long and short poems have incorrectly been attributed to Kalidasa, for instance the Bhramarastaka, the Ghatakarpara, the Mangalastaka, the Nalodaya (a work by Ravideva), the Puspabanavilasa, which is sometimes also ascribed to
Vararuci Vararuci (also transliterated as Vararuchi) () is a name associated with several literary and scientific texts in Sanskrit and also with various legends in several parts of India. This Vararuci is often identified with Kātyāyana. Kātyāyana is ...
or Ravideva, the Raksasakavya, the Rtusamhara, the Sarasvatistotra, the Srngararasastaka, the Srngaratilaka, the Syamaladandaka and the short, didactic text on prosody, the Srutabodha, otherwise thought to be by Vararuci or the Jaina Ajitasena. In addition to the non-authentic works, there are also some "false" Kalidasas. Immensely proud of their poetic achievement, several later poets have either been barefaced enough to call themselves Kalidasa or have invented pseudonyms such as Nava-Kalidasa, "New Kalidasa", Akbariya-Kalidasa, "Akbar-Kalidasa", etc.


Influence

Kālidāsa's influence extends to all later Sanskrit works that followed him, and on
Indian literature Indian literature refers to the literature produced on the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and in the Republic of India thereafter. The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India has 22 officially recognised languages. Sahitya Akadem ...
broadly, becoming an archetype of Sanskrit literature.. Notably in modern Indian literature ''Meghadūta'''s romanticism is found in
Rabindranath Tagore Rabindranath Thakur (; anglicised as Rabindranath Tagore ; 7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941) was a Bengalis, Bengali polymath who worked as a poet, writer, playwright, composer, philosopher, social reformer, and painter of the Bengal Renai ...
's poems on the monsoons.


Critical reputation

Bāṇabhaṭṭa Bāṇabhaṭṭa () was a 7th-century Sanskrit prose writer and poet from India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'' in the court of the Emperor Harsha, during his reign at Kanyakubja. Bāna's principal works include a biography of Harsha, the ''Ha ...
, the 7th-century CE Sanskrit prose-writer and poet, has written: ''nirgatāsu na vā kasya kālidāsasya sūktiṣu, prītirmadhurasārdrāsu mañjarīṣviva jāyate''. ("When Kālidāsa's sweet sayings, charming with sweet sentiment, went forth, who did not feel delight in them as in honey-laden flowers?").
Jayadeva Jayadeva (; born ), also spelt Jaideva, was a Sanskrit poet during the 12th century. He is most known for his epic poem ''Gita Govinda'' which concentrates on Krishna's love with the ''gopi'', Radha, in a rite of spring. This poem, which presen ...
, a later poet, has called Kālidāsa a ''kavikulaguru'', 'the lord of poets' and the ''vilāsa'', 'graceful play' of the muse of poetry. The Indologist Sir
Monier Williams Sir Monier Monier-Williams (; né Williams; 12 November 1819 – 11 April 1899) was a British scholar who was the second Boden Professor of Sanskrit at University of Oxford, Oxford University, England. He studied, documented and taught Language ...
has written: "No composition of Kālidāsa displays more the richness of his poetical genius, the exuberance of his imagination, the warmth and play of his fancy, his profound knowledge of the human heart, his delicate appreciation of its most refined and tender emotions, his familiarity with the workings and counterworkings of its conflicting feelings - in short more entitles him to rank as the Shakespeare of India." Philosopher and linguist
Humboldt Humboldt may refer to: People * Alexander von Humboldt, German natural scientist, brother of Wilhelm von Humboldt * Wilhelm von Humboldt, German linguist, philosopher, and diplomat, brother of Alexander von Humboldt Fictional characters * Hu ...
writes, "Kālidāsa, the celebrated author of the Śākuntalā, is a masterly describer of the influence which Nature exercises upon the minds of lovers. Tenderness in the expression of feelings and richness of creative fancy have assigned to him his lofty place among the poets of all nations."


Later culture

Many scholars have written commentaries on the works of Kālidāsa. Among the most studied commentaries are those by Kolāchala Mallinātha Suri, which were written in the 15th century during the reign of the
Vijayanagara Vijayanagara () is a city located in Vijayanagara district of Karnataka state in India.Vijayanagara
king, Deva Rāya II. The earliest surviving commentaries appear to be those of the 10th-century Kashmirian scholar Vallabhadeva. Eminent Sanskrit poets like
Bāṇabhaṭṭa Bāṇabhaṭṭa () was a 7th-century Sanskrit prose writer and poet from India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'' in the court of the Emperor Harsha, during his reign at Kanyakubja. Bāna's principal works include a biography of Harsha, the ''Ha ...
,
Jayadeva Jayadeva (; born ), also spelt Jaideva, was a Sanskrit poet during the 12th century. He is most known for his epic poem ''Gita Govinda'' which concentrates on Krishna's love with the ''gopi'', Radha, in a rite of spring. This poem, which presen ...
and
Rajasekhara Rajasekhara may refer to: * Rama Rajasekhara/Cheraman Perumal "Nayanar" (''fl.'' 9th century), theologian, devotional poet and ruler from south India * Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet) (''fl.'' 10th century), Sanskrit poet, dramatist and critic * ...
have lavished praise on Kālidāsa in their tributes. A well-known Sanskrit verse ("Upamā Kālidāsasya...") praises his skill at ''upamā'', or
simile A simile () is a type of figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes are often contrasted with metaphors, where similes necessarily compare two things using words such as "like", "as", while metaphors often create an implicit c ...
s.
Anandavardhana Ānandavardhana (c. 820 – 890 CE) was a Kashmiri court poet and literary critic, honored with the title of Rajanak during King Avantivarman's reign. Anandavardhana authored the ''Dhvanyāloka'', or ''A Light on Suggestion'' ('' dhvani''), a w ...
, a highly revered critic, considered Kālidāsa to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. Of the hundreds of pre-modern Sanskrit commentaries on Kālidāsa's works, only a fraction have been contemporarily published. Such commentaries show signs of Kālidāsa's poetry being changed from its original state through centuries of manual copying, and possibly through competing oral traditions which ran alongside the written tradition. Kālidāsa's ''
Abhijñānaśākuntalam ''Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (Devanagari: अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्, IAST: ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam''), also known as ''Shakuntala'', ''The Recognition of Shakuntala'', ''The Sign of Shakuntala'', and many other variant ...
'' was one of the first works of Indian literature to become known in Europe. It was first translated into English and then from English into German, where it was received with wonder and fascination by a group of eminent poets, which included
Herder A herder is a pastoralism, pastoral worker responsible for the care and management of a herd or flock of domestic animals, usually on extensive management, open pasture. It is particularly associated with nomadic pastoralism, nomadic or transhuma ...
and
Goethe Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath who is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. His work has had a wide-ranging influence on Western literature, literary, Polit ...
. Kālidāsa's work continued to evoke inspiration among the artistic circles of Europe during the late 19th century and early 20th century, as evidenced by
Camille Claudel Camille Rosalie Claudel (; 8 December 1864 19 October 1943) was a French sculptor known for her figurative works in bronze and marble. She died in relative obscurity, but later gained recognition for the originality and quality of her work. The ...
's sculpture ''
Shakuntala Shakuntala () is a heroine in ancient Indian literature, best known for her portrayal in the ancient Sanskrit play '' Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (The Recognition of Shakuntala), written by the classical poet Kalidasa in the 4th or 5th century AD ...
''.
Koodiyattam Koodiyattam (; IAST: kūṭiyāṭṭaṁ; ) is a traditional performing art form in the state of Kerala, India. It is a combination of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of ''Koothu'', an ancient performing art from the Sangam era. It ...
artist and Nāṭya Śāstra scholar
Māni Mādhava Chākyār Guru Mani Madhava Chakyar (IAST: ''Māṇi Mādhava Cākyār'') (15 February 1899 – 14 January 1990) was a celebrated master performance artist and Sanskrit scholar from Kerala, India, considered to be the greatest Chakyar Koothu and Koodiy ...
(1899–1990) of Kerala choreographed and performed popular Kālidāsa plays including Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra. The
Kannada Kannada () is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly in the state of Karnataka in southwestern India, and spoken by a minority of the population in all neighbouring states. It has 44 million native speakers, and is additionally a ...
films ''
Mahakavi Kalidasa ''Mahakavi Kalidasa'' () is 1955 Indian Kannada-language film directed by K. R. Seetharama Sastry, in his debut direction. The movie is based on the legends of the poet Kālidāsa. It stars Honnappa Bhagavatar as Kālidāsa, a Sanskrit poet ...
'' (1955), featuring Honnappa Bagavatar, B. Sarojadevi and later ''
Kaviratna Kalidasa ''Kaviratna Kalidasa'' ( ) is a 1983 Kannada-language historical drama film based on the life of Kālidāsa, a renowned Classical Sanskrit writer of the 4th Century A.D. The film was written and directed by Renuka Sharma and produced by V. S. G ...
'' (1983), featuring Rajkumar and
Jaya Prada Jaya Prada Nahata (born Lalitha Rani Rao; 3 April 1962) is an Indian actress and politician known for her works majorly in Telugu cinema and Hindi cinema as well as in Tamil films in late '70s, '80s and early '90s. Jayaprada is the recipient ...
, were based on the life of Kālidāsa. ''
Kaviratna Kalidasa ''Kaviratna Kalidasa'' ( ) is a 1983 Kannada-language historical drama film based on the life of Kālidāsa, a renowned Classical Sanskrit writer of the 4th Century A.D. The film was written and directed by Renuka Sharma and produced by V. S. G ...
'' also used Kālidāsa's
Shakuntala Shakuntala () is a heroine in ancient Indian literature, best known for her portrayal in the ancient Sanskrit play '' Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (The Recognition of Shakuntala), written by the classical poet Kalidasa in the 4th or 5th century AD ...
as a sub-plot in the movie. V. Shantaram made the Hindi movie '' Stree'' (1961) based on Kālidāsa's
Shakuntala Shakuntala () is a heroine in ancient Indian literature, best known for her portrayal in the ancient Sanskrit play '' Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (The Recognition of Shakuntala), written by the classical poet Kalidasa in the 4th or 5th century AD ...
. R.R. Chandran made the Tamil movie '' Mahakavi Kalidas'' (1966) based on Kālidāsa's life.
Chevalier Chevalier may refer to: Honours Belgium * a rank in the Belgian Order of the Crown * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold II * a title in the Belgian nobility France * a rank in the French Legion d'h ...
Nadigar Thilagam
Sivaji Ganesan Villupuram. Chinnaiya Manrayar Ganesamoorthy (1 October 1928 – 21 July 2001), better known by his stage name Sivaji Ganesan, was an Indian actor and film producer. He was mainly active in Tamil cinema during the latter half of the 20th centur ...
played the part of the poet himself. ''
Mahakavi Kalidasu ''Mahakavi Kalidasu'' is a 1960 Indian Telugu-language biographical film directed by Kamalakara Kameswara Rao and written by Pingali. It stars Akkineni Nageswara Rao and Sriranjani Jr., with music composed by Pendyala. It was produced by K ...
'' (Telugu, 1960) featuring
Akkineni Nageswara Rao Akkineni Nageswara Rao (20 September 1924 – 22 January 2014), known as ANR, was an Indian actor and film producer in Telugu cinema. Over his seven decade career, he became a prominent figures in the industry, and is among most influential ac ...
was similarly based on Kālidāsa's life and work.
Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay (30 March 1899 – 22 September 1970) was an Indian Bengali language, Bengali-language writer. He was actively involved with Cinema of West Bengal, Bengali cinema as well as Bollywood. The creator of the Bengali dete ...
's Bengali novel ''Kumarsambhaber Kobi'' is a fictional biography on Kalidasa.
Surendra Verma Surendra Verma (born 7 September 1941) is a leading Hindi litterateur and playwright. He started out as a playwright, when his play ''Surya Ki Antim Kiran Se Surya Ki Pahli Kiran Tak'' (From sunset to sunrise, 1972) became quite well known; i ...
's Hindi play ''Athavan Sarga'', published in 1976, is based on the legend that Kālidāsa could not complete his epic ''Kumārasambhava'' because he was cursed by the goddess
Pārvatī Parvati (, , IPA: / pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: / gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, d ...
, for obscene descriptions of her conjugal life with Śiva in the eighth canto. The play depicts Kālidāsa as a court poet of Chandragupta who faces a trial on the insistence of a priest and some other moralists of his time. ''Asti Kashchid Vagarthiyam'' is a five-act
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
play written by Krishna Kumar in 1984. The story is a variation of the popular legend that Kālidāsa was mentally challenged at one time and that his wife was responsible for his transformation. Kālidāsa, a mentally challenged shepherd, is married to Vidyottamā, a learned princess, through a conspiracy. On discovering that she has been tricked, Vidyottamā banishes Kālidāsa, asking him to acquire scholarship and fame if he desires to continue their relationship. She further stipulates that on his return he will have to answer the question, ''Asti Kaścid Vāgarthaḥ''" ("Is there anything special in expression?"), to her satisfaction. In due course, Kālidāsa attains knowledge and fame as a poet. Kālidāsa begins Kumārsambhava, Raghuvaṃśa and Meghaduta with the words ''Asti'' ("there is"), ''Kaścit'' ("something") and ''Vāgarthaḥ'' ("spoken word and its meaning") respectively. Bishnupada Bhattacharya's "Kalidas o Robindronath" is a comparative study of Kalidasa and the Bengali poet
Rabindranath Tagore Rabindranath Thakur (; anglicised as Rabindranath Tagore ; 7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941) was a Bengalis, Bengali polymath who worked as a poet, writer, playwright, composer, philosopher, social reformer, and painter of the Bengal Renai ...
. ''
Ashadh Ka Ek Din ''Ashadh Ka Ek Din'' (Hindi: आषाढ़ का एक दिन, One Day in Ashadh) is a Hindi play by Mohan Rakesh that debuted in 1958 and is considered the first Modern Hindi play. The play received a Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for bes ...
'' is a Hindi play based on fictionalized elements of Kalidasa's life.


See also

*
Sanskrit literature Sanskrit literature is a broad term for all literature composed in Sanskrit. This includes texts composed in the earliest attested descendant of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language known as Vedic Sanskrit, texts in Classical Sanskrit as well as some ...
*
Sanskrit drama The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Rigveda (1200-1500 BCE), which contains a number of hymns in ...
*
Bhāsa Bhāsa is one of the earliest Indian playwrights in Sanskrit, predating Kālidasa. Estimates of his floruit range from the 4th century BCE to the 4th century CE; the thirteen plays attributed to him are commonly dated closer to the first or se ...
* Bhavabhūti *
Kalidas Dih Kalidas Dih () is a historical and holy place located approximately in Uchchaith Sthan village in the Madhubani district of the Mithila region in state of Bihar in India. It is associated with the Sanskrit scholar, playwright and dramatist Kalid ...


References


Citation


Notes


Bibliography

* * * *


Further reading

* * *


External links


''Kalidasa: Translations of Shakuntala and Other Works''
by
Arthur W. Ryder Arthur William Ryder (March 8, 1877 – March 21, 1938) was a professor of Sanskrit at the University of California, Berkeley. He is best known for translating a number of Sanskrit works into English, including the Panchatantra and the Bhagav ...

Biography of Kalidasa
* * *
Clay Sanskrit Library
publishes classical Indian literature, including the works of Kalidasa with Sanskrit facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials.
Kalidasa
at ''The Online Library of Liberty'' *
Epigraphical Echoes of Kalidasa
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kalidasa 4th-century births 5th-century deaths 4th-century Hindus 5th-century Hindus Indian male poets Hindu poets Epic poets Sanskrit dramatists and playwrights Sanskrit poets 5th-century Indian poets Ancient Indian dramatists and playwrights Indian male dramatists and playwrights Indian Hindus Ancient Indian poets Medieval Hinduism Grammarians from ancient India Artist authors Indian male artists People from Ujjain People from the Gupta Empire Brahma Kali Chandragupta II