The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (; KNIL, ; ) was the military force maintained by the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
The Kingdom of the Netherlands (, ;, , ), commonly known simply as the Netherlands, is a sovereign state consisting of a collection of constituent territories united under the monarch of the Netherlands, who functions as head of state. The re ...
in its
colony
A colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule, which rules the territory and its indigenous peoples separated from the foreign rulers, the colonizer, and their ''metropole'' (or "mother country"). This separated rule was often orga ...
of the
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
, in areas that are now part of
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
. The KNIL's air arm was the
Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force. Elements of the
Royal Netherlands Navy
The Royal Netherlands Navy (, ) is the Navy, maritime service branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. It traces its history to 8 January 1488, making it the List of navies, third-oldest navy in the world.
During the 17th and early 18th centurie ...
and
Government Navy were also stationed in the Netherlands East Indies.
History
1814–1942
The KNIL was formed by royal decree on 14 September 1814. It was not part of the
Royal Netherlands Army
The Royal Netherlands Army (, KL) is the Ground warfare, land branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. Though the Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814, its origins date back to 1572, when the was raised making the Dutch standing a ...
, but a separate military arm specifically formed for service in the
Netherlands East Indies
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
. Its establishment coincided with the Dutch drive to expand colonial rule from the 17th century area of control to the far larger territories constituting the Dutch East Indies seventy years later.
The KNIL was involved in many campaigns against indigenous groups in the area including the
Padri War
The Padri Wars (also called the Minangkabau War) was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra, Indonesia between the Padri and the Adat. The Padri were Islam, Muslim clerics from Sumatra who wanted to impose Sharia in Minangkabau Highlands, ...
(1821–1845), the
Java War
The Java War (; ; ), also known in Indonesia as the Diponegoro War (; ), was an armed conflict in central and eastern Java from 1825 to 1830, between native Javanese rebels headed by Prince Diponegoro and the Dutch East Indies supported by J ...
(1825–1830), crushing the final resistance of
Bali
Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
inhabitants to colonial rule in 1849, and the prolonged
Aceh War
The Aceh War (), also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1904), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Kingdom of the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh ...
(1873–1904).
[Ibrahim, Alfian. "Aceh and the Perang Sabil." ''Indonesian Heritage: Early Modern History''. Vol. 3, ed. Anthony Reid, Sian Jay and T. Durairajoo. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2001. pp. 132–133] In 1894,
Lombok
Lombok, is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It forms part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and the Alas Strait between it and Sumbawa to the east. It is rou ...
and
Karangasem were
annexed
Annexation, in international law, is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. In current international law, it is generally held to ...
in response to reports of the local Balinese aristocracy oppressing the native
Sasak people. Bali was finally taken under full control with the
Dutch intervention in Bali (1906) and the final
Dutch intervention in Bali (1908).
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the KNIL resumed the conquest of the Indonesian archipelago. After 1904 the Netherlands East Indies were considered pacified, with no large-scale armed opposition to Dutch rule until
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, and the KNIL served a mainly defensive role protecting the Dutch East Indies from the possibility of foreign invasion.
Once the archipelago was considered pacified the KNIL was mainly involved with military policing tasks. To ensure a sizeable European military segment in the KNIL and reduce costly recruitment in Europe, the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all resident male conscripts in the European legal class in 1917. In 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of the
Home Guard
Home guard is a title given to various military organizations at various times, with the implication of an emergency or reserve force raised for local defense.
The term "home guard" was first officially used in the American Civil War, starting ...
() for European conscripts older than 32.
World War II
Dutch forces in the Netherlands East Indies were severely weakened by the
defeat and occupation of the Netherlands itself, by
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
, in 1940. The KNIL was cut off from external Dutch assistance, except by Royal Netherlands Navy units. The KNIL, hastily and inadequately, attempted to transform into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from foreign invasion. By December 1941, Dutch forces in Indonesia numbered around 85,000 personnel: regular troops consisted of about 1,000 officers and 34,000 enlisted soldiers, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. The remainder were made up of locally organised militia, territorial guard units and civilian auxiliaries. The KNIL air force, (
Royal Netherlands East Indies Air Force; ML-KNIL) numbered 389 planes of all types, but was largely outclassed by superior Japanese planes. The Royal Netherlands Navy Air Service, or MLD, also had significant forces in the NEI.
During the
Dutch East Indies campaign
The Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–1942 was the conquest of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) by forces of the Empire of Japan in the early days of the Pacific campaign of World War II. Allied forces attempted unsuccessfully t ...
of 1941–42, by forces of the Empire of Japan, most of the KNIL and other Allied forces were quickly defeated.
Most European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied
Indo-European
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia (e. ...
males, were interned by the Japanese as
POW
POW is "prisoner of war", a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict.
POW or pow may also refer to:
Music
* P.O.W (Bullet for My Valentine song), "P.O.W" (Bull ...
s. 25% of the POWs did not survive their internment.
A handful of soldiers, mostly indigenous personnel, mounted guerrilla campaigns against the Japanese. These were usually unknown to, and unassisted by, the Allies until the end of the war.
During early 1942, some KNIL personnel escaped to Australia. Some indigenous personnel were interned in Australia under suspicion of sympathies with the Japanese. The remainder began a long process of re-grouping. In late 1942, a failed
attempt to land in East Timor, to reinforce
Australian commandos waging a guerrilla campaign ended with the loss of 60 Dutch personnel.
Four "Netherlands East Indies" squadrons (the
RAAF-NEI squadrons) were formed from ML-KNIL personnel, under the auspices of the
Royal Australian Air Force
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is the principal Air force, aerial warfare force of Australia, a part of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Australian Army. Constitutionally the Governor-Gener ...
, with Australian ground staff.
KNIL infantry forces (much like their
counterparts in the UK), were augmented by recruitment among Dutch expatriates around the world and by colonial troops from as far away as the
Dutch West Indies
The Dutch Caribbean (historically known as the Dutch West Indies) are the New World territories, colonies, and countries (former and current) of the Dutch Empire and the Kingdom of the Netherlands located in the Caribbean Sea, mainly the norther ...
. During 1944–45, some small units saw action in the
New Guinea campaign
The New Guinea campaign of the Pacific War lasted from January 1942 until the end of the war in August 1945. During the initial phase in early 1942, the Empire of Japan invaded the Territory of New Guinea on 23 January and Territory of Papua on ...
and
Borneo campaign.
Just south of
Casino, New South Wales, a camp was established in 1942 for a KNIL Technical Battalion. Upon the declaration of the Indonesian Republic, the Dutch soldiers in that battalion interned and imprisoned 500 of their Indonesian native comrades within the camp. Harsh treatment and penalties were issued out by the Dutch on any independence seeking soldiers. This led to the deaths of two KNIL native soldiers; one was a possible suicide and the other was a protest leader. This brought about condemnation from Australian locals, who forced the Australian authorities to repatriate all the imprisoned soldiers, despite being reluctant to heed earlier requests for assistance.
1945–1950
Following World War II, the KNIL was used in
two large military campaigns in 1947 and 1948 to re-establish Dutch control of Indonesia. During the
Indonesian War of Independence the KNIL trained the Dutch-born conscripts that arrived in the Dutch East Indies and made them familiar with the way how battles were fought in the colony. The KNIL and its
Ambonese auxiliaries have been accused of committing
war crimes
A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hos ...
during this "police action". Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and Netherlands recognition of Indonesian sovereignty came on 27 December 1949. On 26 January 1950, elements of the KNIL were involved in an
abortive coup in
Bandung
Bandung is the capital city of the West Java province of Indonesia. Located on the island of Java, the city is the List of Indonesian cities by population, fourth-most populous city and fourth largest city in Indonesia after Jakarta, Surabay ...
planned by
Raymond Westerling and
Sultan Hamid II. The coup failed and only accelerated the dissolution of the federal
Republic of the United States of Indonesia.
The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the newly formed
Indonesian military. However, efforts to integrate former KNIL units were impeded by mutual distrust between the predominantly Ambonese KNIL troops and the
Javanese-dominated Republican military, leading to clashes at
Makassar
Makassar ( ), formerly Ujung Pandang ( ), is the capital of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, ...
in April and the attempted secession of an independent
Republic of South Maluku (RMS) in July. These revolts were suppressed by November 1950 and approximately 12,500 Ambonese KNIL personnel and their families opted for temporary resettlement in the Netherlands. Following this, the KNIL ceased to exist but its traditions are maintained by the
Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern
Royal Netherlands Army
The Royal Netherlands Army (, KL) is the Ground warfare, land branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. Though the Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814, its origins date back to 1572, when the was raised making the Dutch standing a ...
. At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new
Indonesian Army
The Indonesian Army ( (TNI-AD), ) is the army, land branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. It has an estimated strength of 300,400 active personnel. The history of the Indonesian Army has its roots in 1945 when the (TKR) "People's Se ...
and should be received with the same rank. Some of them later in the 70s reached the rank of
Major General in Indonesian Army. It is estimated that around 39,000 of the remaining KNIL troops who majority of whom came from
Ambon, took the option of retiring or joining the
Royal Dutch Armed Forces and serving in Papua or Suriname. Some of them were involved in the Dutch contingent in
Korean War
The Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was s ...
(1950–1953).
Recruiting
During its formation, it was stated that the KNIL would include both European and indigenous soldiers. In the beginning the KNIL was equally divided, which meant that half the army consisted of European soldiers, while the other half was made up of indigenous soldiers.
[Moor, J.A. de, 'Met klewang en karabijn: militaire geschiedenis van Nederlands-Indië (1815–1949)' in: J. R. Bruin en C.B. Wels ed., ''Met man en macht. Een militaire geschiedenis van Nederland 1550–2000'' (Amsterdam 2003) 199–244, p. 201] However, starting from the late 1830s the ratio between European soldiers and indigenous soldiers went from 1:1 to 1:3.
[Zwitser, H.L. and C.A. Heshusius, ''Het koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch leger 1830–1950'' (The Hague 1977) p. 12] The reason for this was that there were not enough European volunteers to keep up with the recruitment of indigenous soldiers. Besides European volunteers and indigenous recruits the KNIL also recruited foreign
mercenaries
A mercenary is a private individual who joins an War, armed conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military. Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rath ...
of several nationalities during the 19th century. During the protracted
Aceh War
The Aceh War (), also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1904), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Kingdom of the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh ...
the numbers of European troops were kept to 12,000 but continued Achenese resistance necessitated the deployment of up to 23,000 indigenous soldiers (mainly from
Java
Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
,
Ambon, and
Manado
Manado (, ) is the capital City status in Indonesia, city of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of North Sulawesi. It is the second largest city in Sulawesi after Makassar, with the 2020 census giving a population of 451,916,Badan ...
). Even slaves of the
Ashanti (
Ivory Coast
Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest List of ci ...
and
Ghana
Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
) were recruited in limited numbers for service in the
East Indies
The East Indies (or simply the Indies) is a term used in historical narratives of the Age of Discovery. The ''Indies'' broadly referred to various lands in Eastern world, the East or the Eastern Hemisphere, particularly the islands and mainl ...
(see
Belanda Hitam). The ratio of foreign and indigenous troops to those of Dutch origin was reported to be 60% to 40%. After the Aceh War, the enlistment of non-Dutch European troops ceased and the KNIL came to consist of Dutch regulars recruited in the Netherlands itself, Indonesians,
Indos (Eurasians), and Dutch colonists living in the East Indies and undertaking their military service.
In 1884 personnel strength was numbered at 13,492 European, 14,982 Indonesian, 96 African (though some sources put the number of Africans much higher ) and at least 1,666 Eurasian recruits. The officer corps was wholly European and was probably close to 1,300. There were also about 1,300 horses.
[''The Armed Strength of the Netherlands and Their Colonies''. Trotter, JK. The British War Office Intelligence Division 1887. . pp 162–167.] Recruitment was carried out in the Netherlands and Indonesia, with over 1,000 Dutch subjects and 500 foreigners enlisting annually. The foreign troops consisted of
Flemish,
German,
Swiss
Swiss most commonly refers to:
* the adjectival form of Switzerland
* Swiss people
Swiss may also refer to: Places
* Swiss, Missouri
* Swiss, North Carolina
* Swiss, West Virginia
* Swiss, Wisconsin
Other uses
* Swiss Café, an old café located ...
, and
French volunteers.
Walloons
Walloons ( ; ; ) are a Gallo-Romance languages, Gallo-Romance ethnic group native to Wallonia and the immediate adjacent regions of Flanders, France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Walloons primarily speak ''langues d'oïl'' such as B ...
,
Arabs
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of yea ...
, and nationals of both the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
and
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
were forbidden from serving. Other foreigners who could not prove fluency in either Dutch or German were also not accepted for service.
It was against the law to send Dutch conscripts from the Netherlands to the East Indies but Dutch volunteers continued to enlist for colonial service in the KNIL. In 1890 a
Colonial Reserve Corps (Koloniale Reserve) was established in the Netherlands itself to recruit and train these volunteers and to re-integrate them into Dutch society upon the conclusion of their overseas service. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies consisted of about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. The largest proportion of these "native troops" had always consisted of Javanese and Sundanese soldiers. During the
Japanese occupation, most of the Dutch and Ambonese personnel were interned in
POW
POW is "prisoner of war", a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict.
POW or pow may also refer to:
Music
* P.O.W (Bullet for My Valentine song), "P.O.W" (Bull ...
camps.
During the
Indonesian National Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution (), also known as the Indonesian War of Independence (, ), was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during A ...
, the KNIL's officers were still largely Dutch and Eurasians although most of its troops were recruited from predominantly Indonesian Christian ethnicities, particularly Batak, Moluccas, Timor and Manado. Although there were smaller numbers of Javanese,
Sundanese,
Sumatra
Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
n and other Muslim troops in Dutch service, these received comparatively lower rates of pay than their Christian counterparts, leading to resentment and distrust. The Dutch sought to take advantage of these ethnic tensions by claiming that the Ambonese would lose their special privileges and
pension
A pension (; ) is a fund into which amounts are paid regularly during an individual's working career, and from which periodic payments are made to support the person's retirement from work. A pension may be either a " defined benefit plan", wh ...
s under a Javanese-dominated government. As noted above, these factors contributed to clashes between demobilised KNIL units and the
Republic of Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
's military throughout 1950.
File:Isaac Israels - Transport of colonial soldiers - Google Art Project.jpg, Isaac Israëls, (Transport of the Colonial Soldiers), showing recruits for the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army marching through Rotterdam
Rotterdam ( , ; ; ) is the second-largest List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city in the Netherlands after the national capital of Amsterdam. It is in the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of South Holland, part of the North S ...
to their transport to the Dutch East Indies
File:Dutch cavalry at Sanur 1906.jpg, Cavalry of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army in 1906 during the Dutch intervention in Bali (1906)
File:Korps Speciale Troepen. Parachutisten worden klaargemaakt voor een actie. Paratroopers are being prepared for an action 1948 KNIL Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger.jpg, Paratroopers are being prepared for an action (1948)
File:Elf Javaanse KNIL,K, SFA022800558.jpg, Decorated indigenous KNIL soldiers, 1927
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een groep Indische militairen rust uit bij het oversteken van een rivier TMnr 10001951.jpg, Indigenous KNIL troops, 1938
File:Vickers Light Amphibious Tank.jpg, The Vickers light amphibious tank was used by Dutch forces in the East Indies.
Ranks
;Officers
;Others
Commanders
* 1815-1819
General-major Carl Heinrich Wilhelm Anthing
Carl Heinrich Wilhelm Anthing (11 November 1766 in Saxe-Gotha – 7 February 1823 in The Hague) was a German officer, in Dutch service under several successive regimes, starting with the Dutch Republic, and followed by the Batavian Republic, the ...
* 1819-1822 General-major
Hendrik Merkus de Kock
* 1822-1828 General-major Josephus Jacobus van Geen
* 1829-1830 General-major
Hendrik Merkus de Kock
* 1830-1835
Luitenant-generaal
Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normall ...
Hubert de Stuers
* 1835-1847 General-major Frans David Cochius
* 1847-1849 General-major Carel van der Wijck
* 1849-1851 Luitenant-generaal
Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
* 1851-1854 General-major Gerhardus Bakker
* 1854-1858 Luitenant-generaal
François de Stuers
* 1858-1862 Luitenant-generaal
Jan van Swieten
* 1862-1865 Luitenant-generaal Charles Pierre Schimpf
* 1865-1869 Luitenant-generaal Augustus Johannes Andresen
* 1869-1873 Luitenant-generaal Willem Egbert Kroesen
* 1873-1875 Luitenant-generaal Nicolaus Whitton
* 1875-1879 Luitenant-generaal Gillis Pieter de Neve
* 1879-1883 Luitenant-generaal Huibert Gerard Boumeester
* 1883-1887 Luitenant-generaal Karel Lodewijk Pfeiffer
* 1887-1889 Luitenant-generaal Anthonie Haga
* 1889-1893 Luitenant-generaal
Theodoor Johan Arnold van Zijll de Jong
* 1893-1895 Luitenant-generaal Adriaan Gey van Pittius
* 1895-1897 Luitenant-generaal Jacobus Augustinus Vetter
* 1897-1900 Luitenant-generaal
Lammert Swart
See also
*
Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Women's Corps (VK-KNIL) — women's branch of the KNIL, 1944–1950
*
British Indian Army
The Indian Army was the force of British Raj, British India, until Indian Independence Act 1947, national independence in 1947. Formed in 1895 by uniting the three Presidency armies, it was responsible for the defence of both British India and ...
— having a similar function in British India
Notes
References
;Citations
;Bibliography
*
* Hoofdkwartier Militaire Luchtvaart – Overzicht 1947 (5 pc), ''Flash Aviation'', 2005.
*
*
*
Further reading
*
* Marc Lohnstein and Adam Hook, ''Royal Netherlands East Indies Army 1936–42'', Men-at-arms series 521, Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2018.
External links
*
*
{{Authority control
Royal Netherlands East Indies Army
1830 establishments in the Dutch East Indies
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
Dutch conquest of Indonesia
Military history of Indonesia
Military history of the Netherlands
Military units and formations disestablished in 1950
Military units and formations established in 1830
Military units and formations of the Cold War
Military units and formations of the Dutch East Indies in the Indonesian War of Independence
Organisations based in the Netherlands with royal patronage