Joseph John Campbell (March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American writer. He was a professor of literature at

Sarah Lawrence College Sarah Lawrence College (SLC) is a Private university, private liberal arts college in Yonkers, New York, United States. Founded as a Women's colleges in the United States, women's college in 1926, Sarah Lawrence College has been coeducational ...

who worked in comparative mythology and comparative religion. His work covers many aspects of the

human condition The human condition can be defined as the characteristics and key events of human life, including birth, learning, emotion, aspiration, reason, morality, conflict, and death. This is a very broad topic that has been and continues to be pondered ...

. Campbell's best-known work is his book '' The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949), in which he discusses his theory of the journey of the

archetypal The concept of an archetype ( ) appears in areas relating to behavior, History of psychology#Emergence of German experimental psychology, historical psychology, philosophy and literary analysis. An archetype can be any of the following: # a stat ...

hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or Physical strength, strength. The original hero type of classical epics did such thin ...

shared by world

mythologies Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...

, termed the monomyth. Since the publication of ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', Campbell's theories have been applied by a wide variety of modern writers and artists. His philosophy has been summarized by his own often repeated phrase: "Follow your bliss." He gained recognition in Hollywood when George Lucas credited Campbell's work as influencing his ''

Star Wars ''Star Wars'' is an American epic film, epic space opera media franchise created by George Lucas, which began with the Star Wars (film), eponymous 1977 film and Cultural impact of Star Wars, quickly became a worldwide popular culture, pop cu ...

'' saga. Campbell's approach to

folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...

topics such as myth and his influence on popular culture has been the subject of criticism, especially from academic folklorists.

Life

Background

Joseph Campbell was born in White Plains, New York, on March 26, 1904, the elder son of hosiery importer and wholesaler Charles William Campbell, from

Waltham, Massachusetts Waltham ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States, and was an early center for the labor movement as well as a major contributor to the Technological and industrial history of the United States, American Industrial Revoluti ...

, and Josephine (née Lynch), from New York. Campbell was raised in an upper-middle-class Irish Catholic family; he related that his paternal grandfather Charles had been "a peasant" who came to Boston from

County Mayo County Mayo (; ) is a Counties of Ireland, county in Republic of Ireland, Ireland. In the West Region, Ireland, West of Ireland, in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Connacht, it is named after the village of Mayo, County Mayo, Mayo, now ge ...

in Ireland, and became the gardener and caretaker at the Lyman Estate at Waltham, where his son Charles William Campbell grew up and became a successful salesman at a department store prior to establishing his hosiery business. During his childhood, he moved with his family to

New Rochelle, New York New Rochelle ( ; in ) is a Political subdivisions of New York State#City, city in Westchester County, New York, Westchester County, New York (state), New York, United States. It is a suburb of New York City, located approximately from Midtow ...

. In 1919, a fire destroyed the family home in New Rochelle, killing his maternal grandmother and injuring his father, who tried to save her. In 1921, Campbell graduated from the Canterbury School in

New Milford, Connecticut New Milford is a town in Litchfield County, Connecticut, United States. The town, part of Greater Danbury, as well as the New York Metropolitan Area, has a population of 28,115 as of the 2020 census. New Milford lies north of Danbury on the ...

. While at

Dartmouth College Dartmouth College ( ) is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the America ...

he studied biology and mathematics, but decided that he preferred the

humanities Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including Philosophy, certain fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term "humanities" referred to the study of classical literature a ...

. He transferred to

Columbia University Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Churc ...

, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in

English literature English literature is literature written in the English language from the English-speaking world. The English language has developed over more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian languages, Anglo-Frisian d ...

in 1925 and a Master of Arts degree in

medieval literature Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe and beyond during the Middle Ages (that is, the one thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire ca. AD 500 to the beginning of t ...

in 1927. At Dartmouth he had joined Delta Tau Delta. An accomplished athlete, he received awards in track and field events, and, for a time, was among the fastest half-mile runners in the world. In 1924, Campbell traveled to Europe with his family. On the ship during his return trip he encountered the

messiah In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; , ; , ; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of '' mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach ...

elect of the

Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society is the organizational body of Theosophy, an esoteric new religious movement. It was founded in New York City, U.S.A. in 1875. Among its founders were Helena Blavatsky, a Russian mystic and the principal thinker of the ...

, Jiddu Krishnamurti; they discussed

Indian philosophy Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at." Ānvīkṣikī means “critical inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśan ...

, sparking in Campbell an interest in

Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...

and Indian thought. In 1927, he received a fellowship from Columbia University to study in Europe. Campbell studied

Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th Provençal, and Sanskrit">Provençal (dialect)">Provençal, and Sanskrit at the University of Paris">Sanskrit.html" ;"title="Provençal (dialect)">Provençal, and Sanskrit">Provençal (dialect)">Provençal, and Sanskrit at the University of Paris and the University of Munich. He learned to read and speak French and German. On his return to Columbia University in 1929, Campbell expressed a desire to pursue the study of Sanskrit and modern art in addition to

. Lacking faculty approval, Campbell withdrew from graduate studies. Later in life he jested that it is a sign of incompetence to have a PhD in the

liberal arts Liberal arts education () is a traditional academic course in Western higher education. ''Liberal arts'' takes the term ''skill, art'' in the sense of a learned skill rather than specifically the fine arts. ''Liberal arts education'' can refe ...

, the discipline covering his work.

The Great Depression

With the arrival of the

Great Depression The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty, drastic reductions in industrial production and international trade, and widespread bank and ...

, Campbell spent the next five years (1929–1934) living in a rented shack in

Woodstock, New York Woodstock is a Administrative divisions of New York#Town, town in Ulster County, New York, United States, in the northern part of the county, northwest of Kingston, New York, Kingston. It lies within the borders of the Catskill Park. The popula ...

. There, he contemplated the next course of his life while engaged in intensive and rigorous independent study. He later said that he "would divide the day into four three-hour periods, of which I would be reading in three of the three-hour periods, and free one of them ... I would get nine hours of sheer reading done a day. And this went on for five years straight." Campbell traveled to California for a year (1931–1932), continuing his independent studies and becoming a close friend of the budding writer

John Steinbeck John Ernst Steinbeck ( ; February 27, 1902 – December 20, 1968) was an American writer. He won the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature "for his realistic and imaginative writings, combining as they do sympathetic humor and keen social percep ...

and his wife Carol. Campbell had met Carol's sister, Idell, on a Honolulu cruise and she introduced him to the Steinbecks. Campbell had an affair with Carol. On the Monterey Peninsula, Campbell, like John Steinbeck, fell under the spell of the marine biologist Ed Ricketts (the model for "Doc" in Steinbeck's novel '' Cannery Row'' as well as central characters in several other novels). Campbell lived for a while next door to Ricketts, participated in professional and social activities at his neighbor's, and accompanied him, along with

Xenia Xenia may refer to: People * Xenia (name), a feminine given name; includes a list of people with this name Places United States ''listed alphabetically by state'' * Xenia, Illinois, a village in Clay County ** Xenia Township, Clay County, Il ...

and Sasha Kashevaroff, on a 1932 journey to Juneau, Alaska on the ''Grampus''. Campbell began writing a novel centered on Ricketts as a hero but, unlike Steinbeck, did not complete his book. Bruce Robison writes that Campbell continued his independent reading while teaching for a year in 1933 at the Canterbury School in

Connecticut Connecticut ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York (state), New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. ...

, during which time he also attempted to publish works of fiction. While teaching at the Canterbury School, Campbell sold his first short story ''Strictly Platonic'' to ''Liberty'' magazine.

Sarah Lawrence College

In 1934, Campbell accepted a position as Professor of Literature at

Yonkers, New York Yonkers () is the List of municipalities in New York, third-most populous city in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York and the most-populous City (New York), city in Westchester County, New York, Westchester County. A centrally locate ...

. In 1938, he married one of his former students, the

dance Dance is an The arts, art form, consisting of sequences of body movements with aesthetic and often Symbol, symbolic value, either improvised or purposefully selected. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoir ...

r- choreographer Jean Erdman. For most of their 49 years of marriage they shared a two-room apartment in

Greenwich Village Greenwich Village, or simply the Village, is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 14th Street (Manhattan), 14th Street to the north, Broadway (Manhattan), Broadway to the east, Houston Street to the s ...

in New York City. In the 1980s they also purchased an apartment in

Honolulu Honolulu ( ; ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, located in the Pacific Ocean. It is the county seat of the Consolidated city-county, consolidated City and County of Honol ...

and divided their time between the two cities. They did not have any children. Early in

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

, Campbell attended a lecture by the Indologist

Heinrich Zimmer Heinrich Robert Zimmer (6 December 1890 – 20 March 1943) was a German Indologist and linguist, as well as a historian of South Asian art, most known for his works, ''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization'' and ''Philosophies of Indi ...

; the two men became good friends. After Zimmer's death, Campbell was given the task of editing and posthumously publishing Zimmer's papers, which he would do over the following decade. In 1955–1956, as the last volume of Zimmer's posthumous

treatise A treatise is a Formality, formal and systematic written discourse on some subject concerned with investigating or exposing the main principles of the subject and its conclusions."mwod:treatise, Treatise." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Acc ...

, ''The Art of Indian Asia, Its

Mythology Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...

and Transformations,'' was finally about to be published, Campbell took a sabbatical from Sarah Lawrence College and traveled, for the first time, to Asia. He spent six months in southern Asia (mostly India) and another six in

East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...

(mostly Japan). This year had a profound influence on his thinking about Asian religion and

myth Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...

, and also on the necessity for teaching comparative mythology to a larger, non-

academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...

audience. In 1972, Campbell retired from Sarah Lawrence College, after having taught there for 38 years.

Later life and death

Campbell attended a

Grateful Dead The Grateful Dead was an American rock music, rock band formed in Palo Alto, California, in 1965. Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock, blues, jazz, Folk music, folk, country music, country, bluegrass music, bluegrass, roc ...

concert in 1986, and marveled that "Everyone has just lost themselves in everybody else here!" With Grateful Dead, Campbell put on a conference called "

Ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...

and

Rapture The Rapture is an Christian eschatology, eschatological position held by some Christians, particularly those of American evangelicalism, consisting of an end-time event when all dead Christian believers will be resurrected and, joined with Chr ...

from

Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, myth, Dionysus (; ) is the god of wine-making, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, festivity, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, and theatre. He was also known as Bacchus ( or ; ...

to the Grateful Dead". Campbell died at his home in

, Hawaii, on October 30, 1987, from complications of esophageal cancer. Before his death he had completed filming the series of interviews with Bill Moyers that aired the following spring as '' The Power of Myth''. He is buried in O'ahu Cemetery, Honolulu.

Influences

Art, literature, philosophy

Campbell often referred to the work of modern writers

James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (born James Augusta Joyce; 2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influentia ...

and

Thomas Mann Paul Thomas Mann ( , ; ; 6 June 1875 – 12 August 1955) was a German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist, and the 1929 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate. His highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novell ...

in his lectures and writings, as well as to the art of

Pablo Picasso Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso (25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, Ceramic art, ceramicist, and Scenic ...

. He was introduced to their work during his stay as a graduate student in Paris. Campbell eventually corresponded with Mann. The works of

Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer ( ; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the Phenomenon, phenomenal world as ...

and

Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philology, classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche bec ...

had a profound effect on Campbell's thinking; he quoted their writing frequently. The "follow your bliss" philosophy attributed to Campbell following the original broadcast of ''The Power of Myth'' (see below) derives from the

Upanishads The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...

; however, Campbell was possibly also influenced by the 1922

Sinclair Lewis Harry Sinclair Lewis (February 7, 1885 – January 10, 1951) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930 Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930, he became the first author from the United States (and the first from the America ...

novel '' Babbitt''. In '' The Power of Myth,'' Campbell quotes from the novel:

Psychology and anthropology

The anthropologist Leo Frobenius and his disciple Adolf Ellegard Jensen were important to Campbell's view of cultural history. Campbell was also influenced by the psychological work of

Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow ( ; April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actua ...

and Stanislav Grof. Campbell's ideas regarding myth and its relation to the human psyche are dependent in part on the pioneering work of

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( ; ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies seen as originating fro ...

, but in particular on the work of Jung, whose studies of human psychology greatly influenced Campbell. Campbell's conception of myth is closely related to the Jungian method of

dream interpretation Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to dreams. In many ancient societies, such as those of Egypt and Greece, dreaming was considered a supernatural communication or a means of divine intervention, whose message could be in ...

, which is heavily reliant on

symbol A symbol is a mark, Sign (semiotics), sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, physical object, object, or wikt:relationship, relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by cr ...

ic interpretation. Jung's insights into

archetype The concept of an archetype ( ) appears in areas relating to behavior, historical psychology, philosophy and literary analysis. An archetype can be any of the following: # a statement, pattern of behavior, prototype, "first" form, or a main mo ...

s were heavily influenced by the '' Bardo Thodol'' (also known as ''The Tibetan Book of the Dead''). In his book ''The

Myth Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...

Image An image or picture is a visual representation. An image can be Two-dimensional space, two-dimensional, such as a drawing, painting, or photograph, or Three-dimensional space, three-dimensional, such as a carving or sculpture. Images may be di ...

'', Campbell quotes Jung's statement about the ''Bardo Thodol'', that it

Comparative mythology and theories

Monomyth

Campbell's concept of ''monomyth'' (one myth) refers to the theory that sees all

narrative A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether non-fictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travel literature, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller ...

s as variations of a single great story. The theory is based on the observation that a common pattern exists beneath the narrative elements of most great myths, regardless of their origin or time of creation. Campbell often referred to the ideas of Adolf Bastian and his distinction between what he called "folk" and "elementary" ideas, the latter referring to the prime matter of monomyth while the former to the multitude of local forms the myth takes in order to remain an up-to-date carrier of

sacred Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...

meanings. The central pattern most studied by Campbell is often referred to as " the hero's journey" and was first described in '' The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949). An enthusiast of novelist

, Campbell borrowed the term "monomyth" from Joyce's ''

Finnegans Wake ''Finnegans Wake'' is a novel by Irish literature, Irish writer James Joyce. It was published in instalments starting in 1924, under the title "fragments from ''Work in Progress''". The final title was only revealed when the book was publishe ...

''. Campbell also made heavy use of

Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and psychologist who founded the school of analytical psychology. A prolific author of Carl Jung publications, over 20 books, illustrator, and corr ...

's theories on the structure of the human psyche, and he often used terms such as anima, animus and ego consciousness. As a strong believer in the psychic unity of mankind and its poetic expression through mythology, Campbell made use of the

concept A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, ...

to express the idea that the whole of the human race can be seen as engaged in the effort of making the world ''"transparent to transcendence"'' by showing that underneath the world of

phenomena A phenomenon ( phenomena), sometimes spelled phaenomenon, is an observable Event (philosophy), event. The term came into its modern Philosophy, philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be ...

lies an eternal source which is constantly pouring its energies into this world of time, suffering, and ultimately death. To achieve this task one needs to speak about things that existed before and beyond words, a seemingly impossible task, the solution to which lies in the

metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide, or obscure, clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are usually meant to cr ...

s found in myths. These metaphors are statements that point beyond themselves into the transcendent. The Hero's Journey was the story of the man or woman who, through great suffering, reached an experience of the eternal source and returned with gifts powerful enough to set their society free. As this story spread through space and evolved through time, it was broken down into various local forms ( masks), depending on the

social structure In the social sciences, social structure is the aggregate of patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals. Likewise, society is believed to be grouped into structurally rel ...

s and environmental pressures that existed for the culture that interpreted it. The basic structure, however, has remained relatively unchanged and can be classified using the various stages of a hero's adventure through the story, stages such as ''the Call to Adventure, Receiving Supernatural Aid, Meeting with the

Goddess A goddess is a female deity. In some faiths, a sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship. For example, Shaktism (one of the three major Hinduism, Hindu sects), holds that the ultimate deity, the source of all re ...

/Atonement with the Father'' and ''Return''. These stages, as well as the symbols one encounters throughout the story, provide the necessary

s to express the spiritual truths the story is trying to convey. Metaphors for Campbell, in contrast with ''

simile A simile () is a type of figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes are often contrasted with metaphors, where similes necessarily compare two things using words such as "like", "as", while metaphors often create an implicit c ...

s'' which make use of the word ''like'', pretend to a literal interpretation of what they are referring to, as in the sentence "

Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

is the Son of

God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...

" rather than "the relationship of man to God is ''like'' that of a son to a father". In the 1987 documentary ''Joseph Campbell: A Hero's Journey'', he explains God in terms of a metaphor:

God is a metaphor for a mystery that absolutely transcends all human categories of thought, even the categories of being and non-being. Those are categories of thought. I mean it's as simple as that. So it depends on how much you want to think about it. Whether it's doing you any good. Whether it is putting you in touch with the mystery that's the ground of your own being. If it isn't, well, it's a lie. So half the people in the world are religious people who think that their metaphors are facts. Those are what we call theists. The other half are people who know that the metaphors are not facts. And so, they're lies. Those are the atheists.

Functions of myth

Campbell often described mythology as having a fourfold function within human society. These appear at the end of his work ''The Masks of God: Creative Mythology'', as well as various lectures.Campbell J. (1969
Lectures II.1.1 The Function of Myth
(given at The Esalen Institute in August 1969) ; The

Mystical Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight ...

/Metaphysical Function: ''Awakening and maintaining in the individual a sense of awe and

gratitude Gratitude, thankfulness, or gratefulness is a feeling of appreciation (or similar positive response) by a recipient of another's kindness. This kindness can be gifts, help, favors, or another form of generosity to another person. The word come ...

before the 'mystery of being' and his or her participation in it'' : According to Campbell, the absolute mystery of life, what he called transcendent reality, cannot be captured directly in words or images. Symbols and mythic metaphors on the other hand point outside themselves and into that reality. They are what Campbell called "being statements" and their enactment through ritual can give to the participant a sense of that ultimate mystery as an experience. "Mythological symbols touch and exhilarate centers of life beyond the reach of reason and coercion.... The first function of mythology is to reconcile waking

consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of a state or object, either internal to oneself or in one's external environment. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate among philosophers, scientists, an ...

to the ''mysterium tremendum et fascinans'' of this universe ''as it is''." ; The

Cosmological Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe, the cosmos. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', with the meaning of "a speaking of the wo ...

Function: ''Explaining the shape of the universe'' : For pre-modern societies, myth also functioned as a '' proto-science'', offering explanations for the physical phenomena that surrounded and affected their lives, such as the change of seasons and the life cycles of animals and plants. ; The

Sociological Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. The term sociology was coined in ...

Function: ''Validate and support the existing

social order The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social orde ...

'' : Ancient societies had to conform to an existing social order if they were to survive at all. This is because they evolved under "pressure" from necessities much more intense than the ones encountered in our modern world. Mythology confirmed that order and enforced it by reflecting it into the stories themselves, often describing how the order arrived from divine intervention. Campbell often referred to these "

conformity Conformity or conformism is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to social group, group norms, politics or being like-minded. Social norm, Norms are implicit, specific rules, guidance shared by a group of individuals, that guide t ...

" myths as the ''"Right Hand Path"'' to reflect the brain's left hemisphere's abilities for

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...

, order and

linear In mathematics, the term ''linear'' is used in two distinct senses for two different properties: * linearity of a '' function'' (or '' mapping''); * linearity of a '' polynomial''. An example of a linear function is the function defined by f(x) ...

ity. Together with these myths however, he observed the existence of the ''"Left Hand Path"'', mythic patterns like the ''"Hero's Journey"'' which are revolutionary in character in that they demand from the individual a surpassing of

social norm A social norm is a shared standard of acceptance, acceptable behavior by a group. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into wikt:rule, rules and laws. Social norma ...

s and sometimes even of morality. ; The Pedagogical/

Psychological Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both consciousness, conscious and Unconscious mind, unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feel ...

Function: ''Guide the individual through the stages of life'' : As a person goes through life, many psychological challenges will be encountered. Myth may serve as a guide for successful passage through the stages of one's life.

Evolution of myth

Campbell's view of mythology was by no means static and his books describe in detail how mythologies evolved through time, reflecting the realities in which each society had to adjust. Various stages of cultural development have different yet identifiable mythological systems. In brief these are: ; The Way of the Animal Powers: ''Hunting and gathering societies'' : At this stage of

evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable Phenotypic trait, characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, re ...

, religion was

animistic Animism (from meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, Rock (geology), rocks, rivers, Weather, ...

, as all of nature was seen as being infused with a spirit or

divine Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a singl ...

presence. At center stage was the main hunting animal of that culture, whether the buffalo for Native Americans or the eland for South African tribes, and a large part of religion focused on dealing with the psychological tension that came from the reality of the necessity to kill versus the

divinity Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a single ...

of the animal. This was done by presenting the animals as springing from an eternal

source and coming to this world as ''willing victims'', with the understanding that their lives would be returned to the soil or to the Mother through a ritual of restoration. The act of slaughter then becomes a

ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...

where both parties, animal and mankind, are equal participants. In ''

Mythos Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...

'' and '' The Power of Myth'', Campbell recounts the story he calls "The Buffalo's Wife" as told by the Blackfoot tribe of North America. The story tells of a time when the buffalos stopped coming to the hunting plains, leaving the tribe to starve. The chief's daughter promises to marry the buffalo chief in return for their reappearance, but is eventually spared and taught the buffalo dance by the animals themselves, through which the spirits of their dead will return to their eternal life source. Indeed, Campbell taught that throughout history mankind has held a belief that all life comes from and returns to another dimension which transcends temporality, but which can be reached through ritual. ; The Way of the Seeded Earth: ''Early agrarian societies'' : Beginning in the fertile grasslands of the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

and the

Fertile Crescent The Fertile Crescent () is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, together with northern Kuwait, south-eastern Turkey, and western Iran. Some authors also include ...

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

in the

Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

and moving to Europe, the practice of agriculture spread along with a new way of understanding mankind's relationship to the world. At this time the earth was seen as the Mother, and the myths focused around Her life-giving powers. The plant and cultivation cycle was mirrored in

religious ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...

s which often included human sacrifice, symbolic or literal. The main figures of this system were a female Great Goddess, Mother Earth, and her ever-dying and ever-resurrected son/consort, a male God. At this time the focus was to participate in the repetitive rhythm the world moved in expressed as the four seasons, the birth and death of crops and the phases of the moon. At the center of this motion was the Mother Goddess from whom all life springs and to whom all life returns. This often gave Her a dual aspect as both mother and destroyer. ; The Way of the Celestial Lights: ''The first high civilizations'' : As the first agricultural societies evolved into the high civilisations of

and

Babylonia Babylonia (; , ) was an Ancient history, ancient Akkadian language, Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as a ...

, the observation of the stars inspired them with the idea that life on earth must also follow a similar mathematically predetermined pattern in which individual beings are but mere participants in an eternal cosmic play. The king was symbolised by the Sun with the golden crown as its main metaphor, while his court were the orbiting planets. The Mother Goddess remained, but her powers were now fixed within the rigid framework of a clockwork universe. : However, two barbarian incursions changed that. As the Indo-European (Aryan) people descended from the north and the Semites swept up from the Arabian desert, they carried with them a male dominated mythology with a warrior god whose symbol was the thunder. As they conquered, mainly due to the superior technology of iron smithing, their mythology blended with and subjugated the previous system of the Earth Goddess. Many mythologies of the ancient world, such as those of Greece, India, and Persia, are a result of that fusion with gods retaining some of their original traits and character but now belonging to a single system. Figures such as

Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Greek deities, Greek pantheon. He is a sky father, sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus is the child ...

and

Indra Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes Indra is the m ...

are thunder gods who now interact with

Demeter In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Demeter (; Attic Greek, Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric Greek, Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Twelve Olympians, Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over cro ...

and

, whose ritual sacrifice and rebirth, bearing testament to his pre-Indo-European roots, were still enacted in classical Greece. But for the most part, the focus heavily shifted toward the masculine, with Zeus ascending the throne of the gods and Dionysus demoted to a mere demi-god. : This demotion was very profound in the case of the biblical imagery where the female elements were marginalized to an extreme. Campbell believed that Eve and the snake that tempted her were once fertility gods worshipped in their own right, with the tree of knowledge being the

Tree of Life The tree of life is a fundamental archetype in many of the world's mythology, mythological, religion, religious, and philosophy, philosophical traditions. It is closely related to the concept of the sacred tree.Giovino, Mariana (2007). ''The ...

. He also found significance in the biblical story of Cain and Abel, with Cain being a farmer whose agrarian offering is not accepted by God, while herder Abel's animal sacrifice is. In the lecture series of

, Campbell speaks of the Mysteries of Eleusis in Ancient Greece, where Demeter's journey in the underworld was enacted for young men and women of the time. There he observed that wheat was presented as the ultimate mystery with wine being a symbol of Dionysus, much like in the Christian mysteries where bread and wine are considered to incarnate the body and blood of Jesus. Both religions carry the same "seeded earth" cosmology in different forms while retaining an image of the ever-dying, ever-resurrected God. ; The Way of Man: ''Medieval mythology, romantic love, and the birth of the modern spirit'' : Campbell recognized that the poetic form of courtly love, carried through medieval Europe by the traveling troubadours, contained a complete mythology in its own right. In'' The Power of Myth'' as well as the "Occidental Mythology" volume of ''The Masks of God'', Campbell describes the emergence of a new kind of erotic experience as a "person to person" affair, in contrast with the purely physical definition given to Eros in the ancient world and the communal agape found in the Christian religion. An archetypal story of this kind is the legend of Tristan and Isolde which, apart from its mystical function, shows the transition from an arranged-marriage society as practiced in the Middle Ages and sanctified by the church, into the form of marriage by "falling in love" with another person that we recognize today. So what essentially started from a mythological theme has since become a social reality, mainly due to a change in perception brought about by a new mythologyand represents a central foundational manifestation of Campbell's overriding interpretive message, "Follow your bliss." : Campbell believed that in the modern world the function served by formal, traditional mythological systems has been taken on by individual creators such as artists and philosophers. In the works of some of his favorites, such as

and

, he saw mythological themes that could serve the same life-giving purpose that mythology had once played. Accordingly, Campbell believed the religions of the world to be the various culturally influenced "masks" of the same fundamental, transcendent truths. All religions can bring one to an elevated awareness above and beyond a dualistic conception of reality, or idea of "pairs of opposites" such as being and non-being, or right and wrong. Indeed, he quotes from the

Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' (, , from wikt:ऋच्, ऋच्, "praise" and wikt:वेद, वेद, "knowledge") is an ancient Indian Miscellany, collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canoni ...

in the preface to ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'': "Truth is one, the sages speak of it by many names."

Influence

Joseph Campbell Foundation

In 1991, Campbell's widow, choreographer Jean Erdman, worked with Campbell's longtime friend and editor, Robert Walter, to create the Joseph Campbell Foundation. Initiatives undertaken by the JCF include: ''The Collected Works of Joseph Campbell'', a series of books and recordings that aims to pull together Campbell's myriad-minded work; the Erdman Campbell Award; the Mythological RoundTables, a network of local groups around the globe that explore the subjects of comparative mythology, psychology, religion and culture; and the collection of Campbell's library and papers housed at the OPUS Archives and Research Center.

Film and television

George Lucas was the first filmmaker to credit Campbell's influence. Lucas stated, following the release of the first ''Star Wars'' film in 1977, that its story was shaped, in part, by ideas described in '' The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' and other works of Campbell's. The linkage between ''

'' and Campbell was further reinforced when later reprints of Campbell's book used the image of Luke Skywalker on the cover. Lucas discusses this influence at great length in the authorized biography of Joseph Campbell, ''A Fire in the Mind'': It was not until after the completion of the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy in 1983, however, that Lucas met Campbell or heard any of his lectures. In 1984, Campbell gave a lecture at the Palace of Fine Arts in San Francisco, with Lucas in the audience, who was introduced through their mutual friend

Barbara McClintock Barbara McClintock (June 16, 1902 – September 2, 1992) was an American scientist and cytogenetics, cytogeneticist who was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. McClintock received her PhD in botany from Cornell University ...

. A few years later, Lucas invited Campbell to watch the entire ''Star Wars'' trilogy at Skywalker Ranch, which Campbell called "real art". This meeting led to the filming of the 1988 documentary '' The Power of Myth'' at Skywalker Ranch. In his interviews with Bill Moyers, Campbell discusses the way in which Lucas used ''The Hero's Journey'' in the ''Star Wars'' films (IV, V, and VI) to re-invent the mythology for the contemporary viewer. Moyers and Lucas filmed an interview 12 years later in 1999 called the ''Mythology of Star Wars with George Lucas & Bill Moyers'' to further discuss the impact of Campbell's work on Lucas' films. In addition, the

National Air and Space Museum The National Air and Space Museum (NASM) of the Smithsonian Institution is a museum in Washington, D.C., in the United States, dedicated to history of aviation, human flight and space exploration. Established in 1946 as the National Air Museum, ...

of the

Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...

sponsored an exhibit during the late 1990s called ''Star Wars: The Magic of Myth'', which discussed the ways in which Campbell's work shaped the ''Star Wars'' films. Many filmmakers of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have acknowledged the influence of Campbell's work on their own craft. Christopher Vogler, a Hollywood screenwriter, created a seven-page company memo based on Campbell's work, ''A Practical Guide to The Hero With a Thousand Faces'', which led to the development of

Disney The Walt Disney Company, commonly referred to as simply Disney, is an American multinational mass media and entertainment industry, entertainment conglomerate (company), conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios (Burbank), Walt Di ...

's 1994 film '' The Lion King''. Among films that many viewers have recognized as closely following the pattern of the monomyth are ''

The Matrix ''The Matrix'' is a 1999 science fiction film, science fiction action film written and directed by the Wachowskis. It is the first installment in the The Matrix (franchise), ''Matrix'' film series, starring Keanu Reeves, Laurence Fishburne, Ca ...

'' series, the

Batman Batman is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. Batman was created by the artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, and debuted in Detective Comics 27, the 27th issue of the comic book ''Detective Comics'' on M ...

series and the ''

Indiana Jones ''Indiana Jones'' is an American media franchise consisting of five films and a prequel television series, along with games, comics, and tie-in novels, that depicts the adventures of Indiana Jones (character), Dr. Henry Walton "Indiana" Jones, ...

'' series. Dan Harmon, the creator of the TV show ''

Community A community is a social unit (a group of people) with a shared socially-significant characteristic, such as place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given g ...

'' and co-creator of the TV show ''

Rick and Morty ''Rick and Morty'' is an American Adult animation, adult animated science fiction Animated sitcom, sitcom created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon for Cartoon Network's nighttime programming block Adult Swim. The series follows the misadvent ...

'', often references Campbell as a major influence. According to him, he uses a "story circle" to formulate every story he writes, in a formulation of Campbell's work. A fictionalized version of Campbell himself appears in the seventh episode of the sixth season of ''Rick and Morty'', "Full Meta Jackrick".

Popular literature

After the explosion of popularity brought on by the ''Star Wars'' films and ''The Power of Myth'', creative artists in many media recognized the potential to use Campbell's theories to try to unlock human responses to narrative patterns. Novelists, songwriters, video game designers have studied Campbell's work in order to better understand mythology – in particular, the monomyth – and its impact. The novelist Richard Adams acknowledges a debt to Campbell's work and specifically to the concept of the monomyth. In his best known work, '' Watership Down'', Adams uses extracts from '' The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' as chapter epigrams.

Dan Brown Daniel Gerhard Brown (born June 22, 1964) is an American author best known for his Thriller (genre), thriller novels, including the Robert Langdon (book series), Robert Langdon novels ''Angels & Demons'' (2000), ''The Da Vinci Code'' (2003), '' ...

mentioned in a ''New York Times'' interview that Joseph Campbell's works, particularly ''The Power of Myth'' and ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', inspired him to create the character of Robert Langdon.

"Follow your bliss"

One of Campbell's most identifiable, most quoted and arguably most misunderstood sayings was his maxim to "follow your bliss". He derived this idea from the

: He saw this not merely as a mantra, but as a helpful guide to the individual along the hero journey that each of us walks through life: Campbell began sharing this idea with students during his lectures in the 1970s. By the time that ''The Power of Myth'' was aired in 1988, six months following Campbell's death, "Follow your bliss" was a philosophy that resonated deeply with the American publicboth religious and secular. During his later years, when some students took him to be encouraging

hedonism Hedonism is a family of Philosophy, philosophical views that prioritize pleasure. Psychological hedonism is the theory that all human behavior is Motivation, motivated by the desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. As a form of Psycholo ...

, Campbell is reported to have grumbled, "I should have said, 'Follow your ''blisters''.

Academic reception and criticism

Campbell's approach to myth, a genre of

, has been the subject of criticism from

folklorist Folklore studies (also known as folkloristics, tradition studies or folk life studies in the UK) is the academic discipline devoted to the study of folklore. This term, along with its synonyms, gained currency in the 1950s to distinguish the ac ...

s, academics who specialize in

folklore studies Folklore studies (also known as folkloristics, tradition studies or folk life studies in the UK) is the academic discipline devoted to the study of folklore. This term, along with its synonyms, gained currency in the 1950s to distinguish the ac ...

. American folklorist Barre Toelken says that few psychologists have taken the time to become familiar with the complexities of folklore, and that, historically, Jung-influenced psychologists and authors have tended to build complex theories around single versions of a tale that support a theory or a proposal. To illustrate his point, Toelken employs Clarissa Pinkola Estés's (1992) '' Women Who Run with the Wolves'', citing its inaccurate representation of the folklore record, and Campbell's "monomyth" approach as another. Regarding Campbell, Toelken writes, "Campbell could construct a monomyth of the hero only by citing those stories that fit his preconceived mold, and leaving out equally valid stories… which did not fit the pattern". Toelken traces the influence of Campbell's monomyth theory into other then-contemporary popular works, such as Robert Bly's '' Iron John: A Book About Men'' (1990), which he says suffers from similar source selection bias. Similarly, American folklorist Alan Dundes was highly critical of both Campbell's approach to folklore, designating him as a "non-expert" and gives various examples of what he considers source bias in Campbell's theories, as well as media representation of Campbell as an expert on the subject of myth in popular culture. Dundes writes, "Folklorists have had some success in publicising the results of our efforts in the past two centuries such that members of other disciplines have, after a minimum of reading, believe they are qualified to speak authoritatively of folkloristic matters. It seems that the world is full of self-proclaimed experts in folklore, and a few, such as Campbell, have been accepted as such by the general public (and public television, in the case of Campbell)". According to Dundes, "there is no single idea promulgated by amateurs that has done more harm to serious folklore study than the notion of archetype". According to anthropologist Raymond Scupin, "Joseph Campbell's theories have not been well received in anthropology because of his overgeneralizations, as well as other problems." Campbell's Sanskrit scholarship has been questioned. Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, a former Sanskrit professor at the

University of Toronto The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public university, public research university whose main campus is located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park (Toronto), Queen's Park in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was founded by ...

, said that he once met Campbell, and that the two "hated each other at sight", commenting that, "When I met Campbell at a public gathering he was quoting Sanskrit verses. He had no clue as to what he was talking about; he had the most superficial knowledge of India but he could use it for his own aggrandizement. I remember thinking: this man is corrupt. I know that he was simply ''lying'' about his understanding". According to Richard Buchen, librarian of the Joseph Campbell Collection at the Pacifica Graduate Institute, Campbell could not translate Sanskrit well, but worked closely with three scholars who did. Ellwood observes that ''The Masks of God'' series "impressed literate laity more than specialists"; he quotes Stephen P. Dunn as remarking that in ''Occidental Mythology'' Campbell "writes in a curiously archaic style – full of rhetorical questions, exclamations of wonder and delight, and expostulations directed at the reader, or perhaps at the author's other self – which is charming about a third of the time and rather annoying the rest." Ellwood says that "Campbell was not really a social scientist, and those in the latter camp could tell" and records a concern about Campbell's "oversimplification of historical matters and tendency to make myth mean whatever he wanted it to mean". The critic

Camille Paglia Camille Anna Paglia ( ; born April 2, 1947) is an American academic, social critic and Feminism, feminist. Paglia was a professor at the University of the Arts (Philadelphia), University of the Arts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from 1984 until ...

, writing in '' Sexual Personae'' (1990), expressed disagreement with Campbell's "negative critique of fifth-century Athens" in ''Occidental Mythology'', arguing that Campbell missed the "visionary and exalted" androgyny in Greek statues of nude boys. Paglia has written that while Campbell is "a seminal figure for many American feminists", she loathes him for his "mawkishness and bad research." Paglia has called Campbell "mushy" and a "false teacher", and described his work as a "fanciful, showy mishmash". Campbell has also been accused of

antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...

by some authors. In '' Tikkun'' magazine, Tamar Frankiel noted that Campbell called Judaism the "Yahweh Cult" and that he spoke of Judaism in almost exclusively negative terms. In a 1989 '' New York Review of Books'' article,

Brendan Gill Brendan Gill (October 4, 1914 – December 27, 1997) was an American journalist. He wrote for ''The New Yorker'' for more than 60 years. Gill also contributed film criticism for ''Film Comment'', wrote about design and architecture for Architectu ...

accused Campbell of both antisemitism and prejudice against blacks. Gill's article resulted in a series of letters to the editor, some supporting the charge of antisemitism and others defending him. However, according to Robert S. Ellwood, Gill relied on "scraps of evidence, largely anecdotal" to support his charges. In 1991, Masson also accused Campbell of "hidden anti-Semitism" and "fascination with conservative, semifascistic views". Robert A. Segal's ''Joseph Campbell on Jews and Judaism'' offers 70 references.

Works

Early collaborations

The first published work that bore Campbell's name was ''Where the Two Came to Their Father'' (1943), an account of a Navajo ceremony that was performed by singer ( medicine man) Jeff King and recorded by artist and ethnologist Maud Oakes, recounting the story of two young heroes who go to the hogan of their father, the Sun, and return with the power to destroy the monsters that are plaguing their people. Campbell provided a commentary. He would use this tale through the rest of his career to illustrate both the universal symbols and structures of human myths and the particulars ("folk ideas") of Native American stories. As noted above,

was an important influence on Campbell. Campbell's first important book (with Henry Morton Robinson), '' A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake'' (1944), is a critical analysis of Joyce's final text ''

''. In addition, Campbell's seminal work, ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949), discusses what Campbell called the ''monomyth'' – the cycle of the journey of the

– a term that he borrowed directly from Joyce's ''

''.

''The Hero with a Thousand Faces''

From his days in college through the 1940s, Joseph Campbell turned his hand to writing fiction. In many of his later stories (published in the posthumous collection ''Mythic Imagination'') he began to explore the mythological themes that he was discussing in his Sarah Lawrence classes. These ideas turned him eventually from fiction to non-fiction. Originally titled ''How to Read a Myth'', and based on the introductory class on mythology that he had been teaching at

, ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' was published in 1949 as Campbell's first foray as a solo author; it established his name outside of scholarly circles and remains, arguably, his most influential work to this day. The book argues that

stories such as

Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...

, Apollonius of Tyana, and Jesus all share a similar mythological basis. Not only did it introduce the concept of the hero's journey to popular thinking, but it also began to popularize the very idea of comparative mythology itselfthe study of the human impulse to create stories and images that, though they are clothed in the motifs of a particular time and place, draw nonetheless on universal, eternal themes. Campbell asserted:

Wherever the poetry of myth is interpreted as biography, history, or science, it is killed. The living images become only remote facts of a distant time or sky. Furthermore, it is never difficult to demonstrate that as science and history, mythology is absurd. When a civilization begins to reinterpret its mythology in this way, the life goes out of it, temples become museums, and the link between the two perspectives becomes dissolved.

''The Masks of God''

Published between 1959 and 1968, Campbell's four-volume work ''The Masks of God'' covers mythology from around the world, from ancient to modern. Where '' The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' focused on the commonality of mythology (the "elementary ideas"), the '' Masks of God'' books focus upon historical and cultural variations the monomyth takes on (the "folk ideas"). In other words, where ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' draws perhaps more from psychology, the '' Masks of God'' books draw more from anthropology and history. The four volumes of ''Masks of God'' are as follows: ''Primitive Mythology'', ''Oriental Mythology'', ''Occidental Mythology'', and '' Creative Mythology''.

''Historical Atlas of World Mythology''

At the time of his death, Campbell was in the midst of working on a large-format, lavishly illustrated series titled ''Historical Atlas of World Mythology''. This series was to build on Campbell's idea, first presented in ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', that myth evolves over time through four stages: * ''The Way of the Animal Powers''the myths of

Paleolithic The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic ( years ago) ( ), also called the Old Stone Age (), is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone tools, and which represents almost the entire period of human prehist ...

hunter-gatherers which focus on shamanism and animal totems. * ''The Way of the Seeded Earth''the myths of

Neolithic The Neolithic or New Stone Age (from Ancient Greek, Greek 'new' and 'stone') is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Mesopotamia, Asia, Europe and Africa (c. 10,000 BCE to c. 2,000 BCE). It saw the Neolithic Revo ...

, agrarian cultures which focus upon a mother goddess and associated fertility rites. * ''The Way of the Celestial Lights''the myths of

city-states with pantheons of gods ruling from the heavens, led by a masculine god-king. * ''The Way of Man''religion and philosophy as it developed after the

Axial Age ''Axial Age'' (also ''Axis Age'', from the German ) is a term coined by the German philosopher Karl Jaspers. It refers to broad changes in religious and philosophical thought that occurred in a variety of locations from about the 8th to the 3rd ...

(c. 6th century BCE), in which the mythic imagery of previous eras was made consciously metaphorical, reinterpreted as referring to psycho-spiritual, not literal-historical, matters. This transition is evident in the East in

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six orthodox (Āstika and nāstika, ''āstika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...

, and philosophical

Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...

; and in the West in the Mystery cults,

Platonism Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary Platonists do not necessarily accept all doctrines of Plato. Platonism has had a profound effect on Western thought. At the most fundam ...

, Christianity and

Gnosticism Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek language, Ancient Greek: , Romanization of Ancient Greek, romanized: ''gnōstikós'', Koine Greek: Help:IPA/Greek, �nostiˈkos 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems that coalesced ...

. Only the first volume was completed at the time of Campbell's death. Campbell's editor Robert Walter completed the publication of the first three of five parts of the second volume after Campbell's death. The works are now out of print. , Joseph Campbell Foundation is currently undertaking to create a new, ebook edition.

''The Power of Myth''

Campbell's widest popular recognition followed his collaboration with Bill Moyers on the PBS series '' The Power of Myth'', which was first broadcast in 1988, the year following Campbell's death. The series discusses mythological, religious, and psychological archetypes. A book, ''The Power of Myth'', containing expanded transcripts of their conversations, was released shortly after the original broadcast.

''Collected Works''

The ''Collected Works of Joseph Campbell'' series is a project initiated by the Joseph Campbell Foundation to release new, authoritative editions of Campbell's published and unpublished writing, as well as audio and video recordings of his lectures. Working with New World Library and Acorn Media UK, as well as publishing audio recordings and

ebook An ebook (short for electronic book), also spelled as e-book or eBook, is a book publication made available in electronic form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices. A ...

s under its own banner, the project has produced over seventy-five titles. The series's executive editor is Robert Walter, and the managing editor is David Kudler.

Other books

*''Where the Two Came to Their Father: A Navaho War Ceremonial'' (1943). With Jeff King and Maud Oakes, Old Dominion Foundation *'' The Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension'' (1968). Viking Press *'' Myths to Live By'' (1972). Viking Press *''Erotic irony and mythic forms in the art of Thomas Mann'' (1973; monograph, later included in ''The Mythic Dimension'') *''The Mythic Image'' (1974). Princeton University Press *'' The Inner Reaches of Outer Space: Metaphor As Myth and As Religion'' (1986). Alfred van der Marck Editions *''Transformations of Myth Through Time'' (1990). Harper and Row *''A Joseph Campbell Companion: Reflections on the Art of Living'' (1991). Editor Robert Walter, from material by Diane K. Osbon *''Mythic Worlds, Modern Words: On the Art of James Joyce'' (1993). Editor Edmund L. Epstein *''The Mythic Dimension: Selected Essays (1959–1987)'' (1993). Editor Anthony Van Couvering *''Baksheesh & Brahman: Indian Journals (1954–1955)'' (1995). Editors Robin/ Stephen Larsen & Anthony Van Couvering *'' Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor'' (2001). Editor Eugene Kennedy, New World Library . First volume in the Collected Works of Joseph Campbell *''The Inner Reaches of Outer Space'' (2002) *''Sake & Satori: Asian Journals – Japan'' (2002). Editor David Kudler *''Myths of Light: Eastern Metaphors of the Eternal'' (2003). Editor David Kudler *''Pathways to Bliss: Mythology and Personal Transformation'' (2004). Editor David Kudler *''Mythic Imagination: Collected Short Fiction of Joseph Campbell'' (2012) *''Goddesses: Mysteries of the Feminine Divine'' (2013). Editor Safron Rossi *''Romance of the Grail: The Magic and Mystery of Arthurian Myth'' (2015). Editor Evans Lansing Smith *''The Ecstasy of Being: Mythology and Dance'' (2017). Editor Nancy Allison * ''Correspondence 1927–1987'' (2019, 2020). Editors Dennis Patrick Slattery & Evans Lansing Smith

Interview books

*'' The Power of Myth'' (1988). with Bill Moyers and editor Betty Sue Flowers, Doubleday, hardcover: *''An Open Life: Joseph Campbell in Conversation with Michael Toms'' (1989). Editors John Maher and Dennie Briggs, foreword by Jean Erdman Campbell. Larson Publications, Harper Perennial 1990 paperback: *''This business of the gods: Interview with Fraser Boa'' (Unlicensed – 1989) *'' The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work'' (1990). Editor Phil Cousineau. Harper & Row 1991 paperback: . Element Books 1999 hardcover: . New World Library centennial edition with introduction by Phil Cousineau, foreword by executive editor Stuart L. Brown: * ''Myth and Meaning: Conversations on Mythology and Life'' (2023). Hardcover, New World Library,

Audio recordings

*''Mythology and the Individual'' *''The Power of Myth'' (with Bill Moyers) (1987) *''Transformation of Myth through Time'' Volume 1–3 (1989) *''The Hero with a Thousand Faces: The Cosmogonic Cycle'' (read by Ralph Blum; 1990) *''The Way of Art'' (1990–unlicensed) *''The Lost Teachings of Joseph Campbell'' Volume 1–9 (with Michael Toms; 1993) *''On the Wings of Art: Joseph Campbell; Joseph Campbell on the Art of James Joyce'' (1995) *''The Wisdom of Joseph Campbell'' (with Michael Toms; 1991) * ''Audio Lecture Series'': ** ''Series I – lectures up to 1970'' *** ''Volume 1: Mythology and the Individual'' *** ''Volume 2: Inward Journey: East and West'' *** ''Volume 3: The Eastern Way'' *** ''Volume 4: Man and Myth'' *** ''Volume 5: Myths and Masks of God'' *** ''Volume 6: The Western Quest'' ** ''Series II – lectures from 1970 to 1978'' *** ''Volume 1: A Brief History of World Mythology'' *** ''Volume 2: Mythological Perspectives'' *** ''Volume 3: Christian Symbols and Ideas'' *** ''Volume 4: Psychology and Asia Philosophies'' *** ''Volume 5: Your Myth Today'' *** ''Volume 6: Mythic Ideas and Modern Culture'' ** ''Series III – lectures from 1983 to 1986'' *** ''Volume 1: The Mythic Novels of James Joyce'' *''Myth and Metaphor in Society'' (with Jamake Highwater) (abridged; 2002)

Video recordings

*'' The Hero's Journey: A Biographical Portrait''This film, made shortly before his death in 1987, follows Campbell's personal questa pathless journey of questioning, discovery, and ultimately of joy in a life to which he said, "Yes." *''Sukhavati: A Mythic Journey''This film is a personal, transcendent, and perhaps spiritual portrait of Campbell. *''

''This series comprises talks that Campbell himself believed summed up his views on "the one great story of mankind." It is essentially a repackaging of the lectures featured in ''Transformations of Myth Through Time''. *''Psyche & Symbol'' (12-part telecourse, Bay Area Open College, 1976) *''Transformations of Myth Through Time'' (1989) *'' Joseph Campbell and the Power of Myth'' (1988) *''Myth and Metaphor in Society'' (with Jamake Highwater; 1993)

TV appearances

*'' Bill Moyers Journal'': Joseph Campbell – Myths to Live By (Part One), April 17, 1981 *''Bill Moyers Journal'': Joseph Campbell – Myths to Live By (Part Two), April 24, 1981

Edited books

* Gupta, Mahendranath. ''

The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna ''The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna'' is an English translation of the Bengali religious text ''Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita'' by Swami Nikhilananda. The text records conversations of Ramakrishna with his disciples, devotees and visitors, recorde ...

'' (1942) (translation from Bengali by

Swami Nikhilananda Swami Nikhilananda (1895–1973), born Dinesh Chandra Das Gupta was a direct disciple of Sri Sarada Devi. In 1933, he founded the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center of New York, a branch of Ramakrishna Mission, and remained its head until his deat ...

; Joseph Campbell and Margaret Woodrow Wilson, with translation assistants; foreword by

Aldous Huxley Aldous Leonard Huxley ( ; 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. His bibliography spans nearly 50 books, including non-fiction novel, non-fiction works, as well as essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the ...

) *''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization''.

(1946) *''The King and the Corpse: Tales of the Soul's Conquest of Evil''. Heinrich Zimmer (1948) *''Philosophies of India''. Heinrich Zimmer (1951) *''The Portable Arabian Nights'' (1951) *''The Art of Indian Asia''. Heinrich Zimmer (1955) *''Man and Time: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''. Various authors (1954–1969) *''Man and Transformation: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''. Various authors (1954–1969) *''The Mysteries: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''. Various authors (1954–1969) *''The Mystic Vision: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''. Various authors (1954–1969) *''Spirit and Nature: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''. Various authors (1954–1969) *''Spiritual Disciplines: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks''. Various authors (1954–1969) *''Myths, Dreams, Religion''. Various authors (1970) *''The Portable Jung''.

(1971)

Notes

References

Citations

Works cited

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

*
Joseph Campbell Foundation

The Joseph Campbell Library at Pacifica Graduate Institute
{{DEFAULTSORT:Campbell, Joseph 1904 births 1987 deaths 20th-century American educators 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century Roman Catholics American book editors American expatriates in France American expatriates in Germany American male non-fiction writers American people of Irish descent American religious writers American Roman Catholic writers Burials at Oahu Cemetery Canterbury School (Connecticut) alumni Catholics from Connecticut Catholics from Hawaii Catholics from New York (state) Columbia College (New York) alumni Comparative mythologists Dartmouth College alumni Deaths from cancer in Hawaii Deaths from esophageal cancer in the United States Educators from New York (state) Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Pacifica Graduate Institute people People from Greenwich Village People from New Milford, Connecticut Writers from White Plains, New York People from Woodstock, New York Sarah Lawrence College faculty Symbologists University of Paris alumni Writers from Honolulu Writers from New Rochelle, New York Writers from Manhattan