Jianwen Era

The Jianwen Emperor (5 December 1377 – probably 13 July 1402), personal name Zhu Yunwen, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Huizong of Ming and by his posthumous name as the Emperor Hui of Ming, was the second emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1398 to 1402. Zhu Yunwen's father was Zhu Biao, the eldest son and crown prince of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Zhu Biao died in 1392, after which the Hongwu Emperor named Zhu Yunwen as his successor. He ascended the throne after the Hongwu Emperor's death in June 1398.

The Jianwen Emperor surrounded himself with Confucian-educated officials who immediately began revising the Hongwu Emperor's reforms, and the most significant change was the attempt to limit or eliminate the power of princes (the sons of the Hongwu Emperor). The most powerful among them, Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, who was based in Beijing and responsible for guarding the border with the Mongols. In 1399, Zhu Di rebelled under the pretext of protecting the emperor from corrupt court officials after the emperor ordered the imprisonment of his followers. This sparked a civil war known as the Jingnan campaign, which aimed to eliminate disorder. In 1402, Zhu Di captured the capital of Nanjing, and the imperial palace was burned to the ground. The emperor, along with his wife and eldest son, perished in the fire, but their bodies were never found, leading to rumors of the emperor's survival and refuge in a Buddhist monastery. Zhu Di ascended the throne as the Yongle Emperor. He abolished the Jianwen Emperor's reforms and declared him illegitimate, thus abolishing the Jianwen era and extending the era of Hongwu to 1402. It was not until 1595 that the Jianwen Emperor's era and imperial title were restored by the Wanli Emperor.

Early life

Zhu Yunwen, the future Jianwen Emperor, was born on 5 December 1377, the second son of Zhu Biao and his wife Lady Lü. Zhu Biao was the eldest son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder and first emperor of the Ming dynasty of China. Upon assuming the imperial title in 1368, the Hongwu Emperor named his eldest son as his heir to the throne. In 1382, after the death of his elder brother, Zhu Yunwen became the eldest son of Zhu Biao. He was a mature and direct child, and was well-liked by the emperor.

In May 1392, Zhu Biao died at the age of thirty-seven after several months of illness. As the eldest surviving son, Zhu Yunwen was named the new crown prince on 28 September 1392. He spent the next six years carefully preparing for his future role as emperor. Like his father, Zhu Yunwen was not physically fit and preferred scholarly pursuits. As crown prince, he criticized certain laws and statements for being excessively harsh and advocated for their abolition. He was known for his polite demeanor and adherence to Confucian values, such as (benevolence) and (filial piety). The Hongwu Emperor had doubts about his grandson's ability to rule, as he believed him to lack toughness. This may have been the reason for the purges of potentially dangerous generals in the first half of the 1390s.

Accession

The Hongwu Emperor died on 24 June 1398. Just six days later, on 30 June 1398, Zhu Yunwen took the throne. Known for his gentle nature and adherence to Confucian principles, he was deeply concerned about the harshness of his grandfather's policies. As a result, he aimed to bring about significant changes in the political landscape. The era name of his reign, Jianwen, means "establishing civility" and represents a sharp change in tone from Hongwu ("vastly martial"), the era name of his grandfather's reign. Instead of relying on accomplished generals or members of the imperial family, he turned to Confucian scholars for guidance. His closest advisors were Huang Zicheng, Qi Tai, and Fang Xiaoru, all of whom were idealistic reformers, but they lacked practical experience in governing the country.

Reforms

During the reign of the Jianwen Emperor, the civilian part of the administration gained more influence, while that of the military commanders and the emperor's uncles declined. After the abolition of the Central Secretariat in 1380, there had been no central office in the Ming administration to coordinate the work of ministries and other civil offices. As a result, all of these offices were directly under the emperor's control. The Jianwen Emperor relied on Huang Zicheng, Qi Tai, and Fang Xiaoru to lead the government, discussing policies with them and overseeing their implementation by the ministries. Although they effectively acted as chancellors (; ''chengxiang''), they did not hold the official title. This reform proved beneficial for the administration of the empire, but it went against the edict of the Hongwu Emperor, which strictly prohibited the restoration of the chancellery in any form due to concerns about the potential threat from the authority and autonomy of the chancellor.

The ministers were elevated from the second rank to the first in the hierarchy of rank classes, placing them on equal footing with the highest-ranking generals (the military commissioners). The number of departments and officials in the ministries was changed, and the status and number of positions in the Hanlin Academy and the Imperial University were increased. He also strengthened the influence of Hanlin scholars in educating princes by creating new positions in the Household Administration of the Heir Apparent. A series of changes were made to the powers and titles of offices, following the patterns of the ancient Zhou dynasty ( – 256 BC).

The Jianwen Emperor abolished the unfair tax system of the previous era, particularly the excessive taxes imposed on Jiangnan, specifically Suzhou and Songjiang prefectures. In 1400, taxes in Jiangnan were reduced to a more reasonable level. The following year, the tax exemptions for Taoist and Buddhist clergy were limited, and they were required to hand over land exceeding a certain amount to be distributed to the needy. The government did not have enough time to fully implement these changes before its fall.

Reduction of the princes' power

The Jianwen government aimed to reduce the influence of the emperor's uncles, the sons of the Hongwu Emperor, especially Zhu Di, Prince of Yan; Zhu Su, Prince of Zhou; Zhu Gui, Prince of Dai; Zhu Bo, Prince of Xiang; Zhu Fu, Prince of Qi; and Zhu Pian, Prince of Min. Their father had granted them the title of prince (; ''wang''), along with significant income and privileges. They were stationed in various provinces and had their own personal guards, which could range from 3,000 to 15,000 men. Some of them even led the Ming armies in the 1390s, particularly on the northern border. The most powerful and eldest among them was Zhu Di, the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor. The princes saw the Jianwen Emperor's efforts as a personal threat and a violation of the laws of the Hongwu Emperor, which everyone, including the emperor, was obliged to obey.

The policy of "reducing the feudatories" (; ''xuefan'') was supported by Qi Tai and, most notably, by Huang Zicheng, who cited past dynastic experiences, such as the Rebellion of the Seven States during the Han dynasty. Princedoms were either directly suppressed or had their powers limited for both real and perceived offenses. The government forbade the princes from participating in public life, in direct contradiction to the laws of the late Hongwu Emperor, which stated that they were to be the backbone of the throne at the head of the government's armies.

The first victim of the new order was Zhu Su, based in Kaifeng, a city in central China, and a close friend of Zhu Di. In the fall of 1398, the Jianwen Emperor stripped him of his title and exiled him to the southeastern Chinese province of Yunnan. In February 1399, Zhu Gui was placed under house arrest in Datong. Zhu Bo set fire to his palace in Jingzhou on 1 June 1399, taking his own life and that of his family. In the following two months, in June and July, Zhu Fu (based in Jingzhou) and Zhu Pian (based in Yunnan) were also stripped of their titles. The main long-term target of the government's measures was Zhu Di. He was based in Beijing and had shown himself to be a capable military leader and energetic administrator during campaigns against the Mongols. However, since 1392, when he was not named as a successor, he considered himself unjustly neglected.

Civil war

Conflict with Zhu Di

The government was cautious towards Zhu Di, which gave him the opportunity to prepare and gather forces, although his power was systematically limited. For example, his personal guard of 15,000 men was transferred outside of Beijing, and the generals serving in the northeast, close to Zhu Di, were gradually replaced by commanders loyal to the Jianwen Emperor.

In June 1399, the emperor finally granted Zhu Di's request to return his sons, who had been effectively held as hostages in Nanjing since the Hongwu Emperor's funeral, to Beijing. This event seemed to remove Zhu Di's inhibitions. The immediate pretext for his rebellion was the arrest of two of his lower officials for "subversive activity". With the support of Beijing's provincial dignitaries, Zhu Di responded by occupying the counties and prefectures around Beijing, calling the war a campaign to clear away disorders.

Zhu Di justified his actions by claiming that he wanted to end internal disorder and confusion, defend the Hongwu Emperor's statutes and laws defining the duties of princes, and honor his deceased father. He accused the emperor and his ministers of persecuting the princes, who were falsely accused of preparing an uprising. He presented his actions as a reasonable act of self-defense. He also stated that he had no interest in the throne, but as the eldest surviving son of the deceased founder of the dynasty, he felt obligated to restore the law and legality that had been subverted by the emperor's criminal advisers and ministers.

Course of the war

At the beginning of the war, Zhu Di had a force of 100,000 men and controlled the immediate vicinity of Beijing. In contrast, the Ming government had three times the number of soldiers and significantly more resources, but the government's superiority was not as clear-cut as it seemed. Zhu Di was a decisive and exceptionally capable commander, leading elite units that included a large number of Mongol cavalry. On the other hand, the imperial party was weakened by the indecision and poor coordination of its commanders, as well as the conflicting views between those who supported aggressive tactics and those who favored a more conciliatory approach. Additionally, the emperor and his closest ministers lacked military experience.

In August 1399, the emperor appointed Geng Bingwen as the commander of the troops tasked with suppressing the rebellion. Geng Bingwen led 130,000 troops to Zhending, a city southwest of Beijing, but was ultimately defeated by Zhu Di in late September, resulting in heavy losses for the imperial army. The new commander of the imperial army, Li Jinglong, took advantage of Zhu Di's absence from Beijing and laid siege to the city in November 1399. Zhu Di quickly returned and forced the imperial army to retreat.

In 1400, there were numerous rebel attacks and government army counterattacks. The Imperial forces were unable to utilize their numerical advantage or mobilize additional troops, allowing Zhu Di to strengthen his position in the north. The emperor, who was dissatisfied with Li Jinglong, dismissed him and appointed Sheng Yong as the new commander of the anti-rebellion forces. Zhu Di, following the advice of his supporters in Nanjing, opted for a war of attrition. He disrupted the enemy's communications in southern Beijing and western Shandong through small raids from the autumn of 1400.

The government army used firearms and rocket weapons to kill tens of thousands of rebels at Dongchang in Shandong in January 1401. During the retreat to Beijing, Zhu Di narrowly escaped capture. In late February, the rebels launched an attack, and they crushed the government armies in April and May. In response, the emperor promoted Ru Chang and Li Jinglong, who were leaders of the "peace party" at court, but Zhu Di rejected their offer for negotiations. The insurgents continued to raid the enemy's supply lines throughout the summer, while the front in Shandong and southern Beijing was moving back and forth.

Zhu Di launched an offensive in January 1402. On the advice of the Nanjing eunuchs, he chose to advance westward instead of through the fortified cities along the Grand Canal, where the government forces were stronger. This strategic decision proved successful as the government forces in the west were weaker, allowing the rebels to disrupt their lines. The government's attempt to stop the rebel advance by sending reinforcements led by General Xu Huizu to the north failed. The rebels continued their southward march, and captured Xuzhou, a city in the north of the strategically important Zhili by the beginning of March. As a result, the government was forced to withdraw its troops from Beijing and Shandong provinces to defend Zhili.

From April to June 1402, the rebel army engaged in fierce battles and successfully advanced from Xuzhou to the banks of the Yangtze River. Chen Xuan, the commander of the government fleet, defected to the rebels, giving them an open road to Nanjing. The emperor, who was gathering forces to defend the capital, was unable to stop the rebels. Taking advantage of the chaos, members of the "peace party" opened the gates of Nanjing to the rebels on 13 July 1402. In the ensuing clashes, the imperial palace was burned down. Three bodies found at the cremation site were later identified as those of the emperor, his wife, and their eldest son. Beginning in the Jiajing era (1522–1567), non-state historians who were sympathetic to the Jianwen Emperor propagated a folk legend in their writings that the Jianwen Emperor survived the palace fire and lived in anonymity as a Buddhist monk.

Zhu Di ascended the imperial throne on 17 July presenting himself as the direct successor of the Hongwu Emperor. He denied legitimacy to his overthrown nephew, canceled his reforms, and attempted to erase them from history. The Jianwen Emperor's younger son, Zhu Wengui, and other relatives spent the rest of their lives in prison. The Jianwen Emperor's followers were punished, and his closest advisers were executed. Although Zhu Di hoped that Fang Xiaoru, known for his integrity and honesty, would join his side and bring confidence to the new government, he was resolutely rejected. As punishment, the emperor not only executed Fang's relatives but also his pupils. The purges, executions, imprisonments, and exiles affected tens of thousands of people.

Legacy

In an attempt to erase the memory of the Jianwen Emperor, the era of Jianwen was retroactively cancelled and the era of Hongwu was extended from 1399 to 1402. Many official documents from his government were destroyed, and private notes were also eliminated. Historians' views of the Jianwen Emperor were closely tied to their opinions of the legitimacy of the Yongle Emperor's rule. The Jianwen Emperor's reforms were criticized for deviating from the principles of the dynasty's founder and were subsequently repealed. Furthermore, the Yongle Emperor fully restored the harsh laws of the Hongwu Emperor that had been abolished by the emperor.

The official history of the Hongwu Emperor's reign, known as ''Taizu Shilu'' ("Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu"), was compiled from 1399 to 1402, but was rewritten by 1403 and again between 1411 and 1418. The Yongle Emperor's historians portrayed the Jianwen Emperor as a weak and immoral ruler who showed little interest in governing and was surrounded by corrupt and treacherous ministers. However, later versions of the history paint the Jianwen Emperor as an honest and benevolent leader who followed the advice of devoted Confucians and worked to correct the cruelties of his predecessor. The Wanli Emperor restored his reign to the official history of the dynasty in October 1595, but he was not given a posthumous temple name until July 1644 by Zhu Yousong (the Hongguang Emperor), the first ruler of the Southern Ming dynasty. Zhu Yousong bestowed upon him the temple name Huizong (; 'Magnanimous Ancestor') and the posthumous name Emperor Rang (; 'Abdicated Emperor'). However, Zhu Yousong was not recognized by the Qing dynasty, which succeeded the Ming, as legitimate, and his decisions were not considered valid. It was not until September 1736 that the Qianlong Emperor granted the Jianwen Emperor the posthumous name Emperor Gongmin Hui ().

Family

Consorts and issue

* Empress Xiaominrang, of the Ma clan (; 1378–1402)
** Zhu Wenkui, Crown Prince Hejian (; 30 November 1396 – 1402), first son
** Zhu Wengui, Prince of Runhuai (; 1401–1457), second son

See also

* Chinese emperors family tree (late)
* List of people who disappeared

Notes

References

Citations

Works cited

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Jianwen Emperor
1377 births
1402 deaths
14th-century Chinese monarchs
15th-century Chinese monarchs
15th-century missing person cases
Emperors of the Ming dynasty
Missing person cases in China
Murdered emperors of China
People from Nanjing
Suicides in the Ming dynasty
Historical controversies in China