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The Jewish revolt against Heraclius was part of the
Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 The Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, also called the Last Great War of Antiquity, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire. It was the final and most devastating conflict of the Roman–Persian wars (54 BCAD&n ...
and is considered the last time
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
had autonomy over
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
prior to modern times.


Background

Jews and Samaritans were persecuted frequently by the Byzantines resulting in numerous revolts. Byzantine religious propaganda developed strong anti-Jewish elements. In several cases Jews tried to help support the Sasanian advance. A pogrom in
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
in 608 would lead to a Jewish revolt in 610 which was crushed. Jews also revolted in both Tyre and
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
in 610. The Jews of Tyre were massacred in reprisal. Unlike in earlier times when Jews had supported Christians in the fight against
Shapur I Shapur I (also spelled Shabuhr I; ) was the second Sasanian Empire, Sasanian King of Kings of Iran. The precise dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father Ardashir I as co-regent u ...
, the Byzantines had now become viewed as oppressors. The territory is said to have had a substantial indigenous Jewish population at this time. James Parkes estimates that if ten percent of the Jewish population joined the revolt and the figure of 20,000 rebels is correct then 200,000 Jews were living in the territory at the time. Likewise Michael Avi-Yonah used the figure of Jewish combatants to arrive at an estimate of the total Jewish population. He gives a figure of 150,000 to 200,000 living in 43 Jewish settlements. Salo Wittmayer Baron in 1957 questioned the reliability of the number of Jewish combatants recorded in ancient texts and the population estimates based on these texts, although he does not discount the estimate altogether. He reasons that the 43 Jewish settlements Avi-Yonah lists may indeed be supportive of a minority Jewish presence of 10 to 15%. Jacob Neusner similarly accepts this estimate. In 1950 Israel Cohen gave an estimate of double these values, estimating that between 300,000 and 400,000 Jews were in the land. More recently Moshe Gil has postulated that the combined Jewish and Samaritan population was a majority in the early 7th century. Jews are thought to have been concentrated in the
Galilee Galilee (; ; ; ) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon consisting of two parts: the Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and the Lower Galilee (, ; , ). ''Galilee'' encompasses the area north of the Mount Carmel-Mount Gilboa ridge and ...
during this time period. The Galilee is said to have contained several cities which are thought to have been populated largely by a homogenous Jewish demographic,
Tiberias Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...
being a center of Jewish learning. In fact the title of the
Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud (, often for short) or Palestinian Talmud, also known as the Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah. Naming this version of the Talm ...
is something of a misnomer as it was actually compiled in
Tiberias Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...
, as Jews were banned from Jerusalem.


Timeline


Galilee and Caesarea

Following the Battle of Antioch in 613,
Shahrbaraz Shahrbaraz (also spelled Shahrvaraz or Shahrwaraz; New Persian: ) was shah (king) of the Sasanian Empire from 27 April 630 to 9 June 630. He usurped the throne from Ardashir III, and was killed by Iranian nobles after forty days. Before usurp ...
led his forces through Palaestina Secunda and into Palaestina Prima provinces. Shahrbaraz conquered Caesarea Maritima, the administrative capital of the Palaestina Prima province. When Shahrbaraz had entered Galilee, a significant Jewish revolt took place with some 20,000 Jewish rebels joining him in the war against the Byzantines. Depending on the chronicler figures of either 20,000 or 26,000 are given. The Sasanian Persians were joined by Nehemiah ben Hushiel and Benjamin of Tiberias (a man of immense wealth), who enlisted and armed Jewish soldiers from
Tiberias Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...
,
Nazareth Nazareth is the largest Cities in Israel, city in the Northern District (Israel), Northern District of Israel. In its population was . Known as "the Arab capital of Israel", Nazareth serves as a cultural, political, religious, economic and ...
and the mountain cities of Galilee, and together with a band of Arabs and additional Jews from southern parts of the country they marched on Jerusalem.


Capture of Jerusalem

The Persian army reinforced by Jewish forces led by Nehemiah ben Hushiel and Benjamin of Tiberias would capture Jerusalem without resistance. The capture of Jerusalem was interpreted by Jewish writers in a messianic context. Sacrifices may even have been renewed on the
Temple Mount The Temple Mount (), also known as the Noble Sanctuary (Arabic: الحرم الشريف, 'Haram al-Sharif'), and sometimes as Jerusalem's holy esplanade, is a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem that has been venerated as a ...
. Control of the city was handed to Nehemiah ben Hushiel and Benjamin of Tiberias. Nehemiah was then appointed the ruler of Jerusalem. He began making arrangements for the building of the
Third Temple The "Third Temple" (, , ) refers to a hypothetical rebuilt Temple in Jerusalem. It would succeed the First Temple and the Second Temple, the former having been destroyed during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in and the latter having bee ...
, and sorting out genealogies to establish a new High Priesthood.


Christian rebellion

Shortly after Jerusalem was handed over to Jewish forces led by Nehemiah ben Hushiel expulsions of the local Christian population took place, causing a revolt. Nehemiah ben Hushiel and his council of sixteen righteous were killed along with many other Jews, some throwing themselves off the city walls. The surviving Jews fled to Shahrbaraz's encampment at Caesarea and Christians forces were able to briefly retake Jerusalem. A short siege between 19 and 21 days by Shahrbaraz's forces breached the walls and allowed the Persians to retake the city. According to the Armenian bishop and historian Sebeos the siege resulted in a total Christian death toll of 17,000, with a large number of prisoners, 4,518 according to Georgian translations of Sebeos and 24,518 according to Arabic translations, were massacred near Mamilla reservoir per Antiochus Strategos.The Persian Conquest of Jerusalem (614 CE) – an archeological assessment
by Gideon Avni, Director of the Excavations and Surveys Department of the Israel Antiquities Authority.
James Howard-Johnston argues that the massacre occurred in the context of the returning Jews attempting to round up the ring leaders who had led the earlier pogrom. Theophanes the Confessor cited a death death toll as high as 90,000, however most historians reject this as unreliable. In addition 35,000 or 37,000 people including the Patriarch of Jerusalem Zacharias were deported to Mesopotamia. Contemporary accounts state the city suffered extensive damage, however, wide spread destruction of Jerusalem during the siege or has not been found in the archaeological record. The search for the
True Cross According to Christian tradition, the True Cross is the real instrument of Jesus' crucifixion, cross on which Jesus of Nazareth was Crucifixion of Jesus, crucified. It is related by numerous historical accounts and Christian mythology, legends ...
is said to have involved the torture of clergymen. Once found, the True Cross was carried off to
Ctesiphon Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
. Strategos, himself taken into Persian captivity afterwards, wrote that the Jews offered to help the Christian captives escape death if they "become Jews and deny Christ." Those who refused conversion, were purchased by the Jews and killed.EHR July, 1910
/ref> A significant number of burial sites were allocated according to Antiochus. A mass burial grave at Mamilla cave was discovered in 1989 by Israeli
archeologist Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscapes. Archaeol ...
Ronny Reich near the site, where Antiochus recorded the massacre took place. The human remains were in poor condition allowing the identification of only 526 individuals out of thousands of suspected victims."Human Skeletal Remains from the Mamilla cave, Jerusalem"
by Yossi Nagar.


Jewish expedition to Tyre

According to Eutychius (887–940), the Jews launched an expedition against Tyre. Bands of Jews from Jerusalem, Tiberias, Galilee, Damascus, and even from Cyprus, united and undertook an incursion against Tyre, having been invited by the 4,000 Jewish inhabitants of that city to surprise and massacre the Christians on Easter night. The Jewish army is said to have consisted of 20,000 men. The expedition, however, miscarried, as the Christians of Tyre learned of the impending danger, and seized the 4,000 Tyrian Jews as hostages. The Jewish invaders destroyed the churches around Tyre, an act which the Christians avenged by killing two thousand of their Jewish prisoners. The besiegers, to save the remaining prisoners, withdrew, having had to suffer the humiliation of watching the heads of the Jewish captives as they were thrown over the walls.


Jewish control of Jerusalem

The Jews had hoped that Khosrow II would give them all of the
Land of Israel The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definition ...
in exchange for their support. However they were too few to make this a reality. From 614 to 617 CE, they are said to have enjoyed control of Jerusalem, although it may have been in a state of relative anarchy for some of this period. By 617 CE the Persians had reversed their policy and sided with the Christians over the Jews, probably because of pressure from Mesopotamian Christians in Persia itself. Further Jewish settlers were banned from settling in or around Jerusalem and a small synagogue on the Temple Mount was also demolished. Instead of supporting the Jews, Khosrow is said to have imposed heavy taxes on them.


Byzantine return to Jerusalem

By 622 CE, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius had assembled an army to retake the territory lost to the
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
. In 628, following the deposition of Khosrow II, Kavad II made peace with
Heraclius Heraclius (; 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Africa, led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas. Heraclius's reign was ...
, but Kavad II would only have a brief reign. The conquered city and the Cross would remain in Sasanian hands until they were returned by Shahrbaraz. On 21 March 630, Heraclius marched in triumph into Jerusalem with the True Cross. Ancient manuscripts date Heraclius' entry into Jerusalem as 21 March 629. Modern scholars increasingly doubt this date for a number of reasons.


Dating Byzantine return

Walter Emil Kaegi puts the death of Kavad II in September 629. The Persian succession between 628 and 632 becomes confused and different historians give different succession timelines. In the period following the death of Kavad II, up to six different individual are said to have reigned, these are Ardashir III, Shahrbaraz, Borandukht, Shapur-i Shahrvaraz, Azarmidokht and Farrukh Hormizd. Negotiations continued with Shahrbaraz being the real power. Antiochus records that Heraclius made an agreement with Ardashir III with Shahrbaraz acting as intermediary, Nikephoros gives a date of July 629 at Arabissos. Walter Emil Kaegi sees this July 629 meeting as representing an earlier negotiation with Shahrbaraz preceding the death of Kavad II. Nikephoros exaggerated and confused the record by claiming that Hormizd succeeded Kavad II. Claiming Hormizd sent his son to Heraclius' court. Heraclius was in Constantinople in 629 where he issued a "novel", or law, that went into effect on 1 April 629. At Arabissos Heraclius and Shahrbaraz would agree on new borders. To seal the deal Shahrbaraz's son Niketas and another of his brothers came to live at the Byzantine court, having been held for a time in central Mesopotamia practically as hostages. They arrived along with the True Cross. The Holy Sponge was attached to the cross in a special ceremony in Constantinople on 14 September 629. The Holy Lance followed reaching Constantinople on 28 October 629. It is probable that at this time, Niketas converted to Christianity; as he was his father's heir-apparent, this opened the prospect of the Christianization of Persia should Shahrbaraz be able to maintain his power there. Heraclius would not have entered Jerusalem while the Persian troop presence persisted. Heraclius brother Theodore had encounter resistance at Edessa and Heraclius would not have exposed himself to similar danger. Shahrbaraz had Ardashir III assassinated and took control of the Persian Empire from 27 April 630 to 9 June 630. The 630 date would also have the advantage of matching the date for the Fast of Heraclius.


Discourse


Reconciliation attempts

Heraclius came as victor into the country and the Jews of Tiberias and Nazareth, under the leadership of Benjamin of Tiberias, surrendered and asked for his protection. It is said that Benjamin even accompanied Heraclius on his voyage to Jerusalem and Benjamin was persuaded to convert, Benjamin obtained a general pardon for himself and the Jews. He was baptized in
Nablus Nablus ( ; , ) is a State of Palestine, Palestinian city in the West Bank, located approximately north of Jerusalem, with a population of 156,906. Located between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, it is the capital of the Nablus Governorate and a ...
in the house of Eustathios, an influential Christian. However once Heraclius reached Jerusalem broke his promise to Benjamin of Tiberias after seeing the mass graves at the Mamilla Reservoir. Some modern scholars ascribe the story of the "Oath of Heraclius" to the realm of legend, doubting that Heraclius ever made such a promise, or else view his alleged reluctance to break the oath as a product of later apologists.


Massacre of the Jews

Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and were not allowed to settle within a three-mile radius. A general massacre of the Jewish population ensued. The massacre devastated the Jewish communities of the Galilee and Jerusalem. Only those Jews who could flee to the mountains or Egypt are said to have been spared. In atonement for the violation of the emperor's oath to the Jews, the monks are said to have pledged themselves to a yearly fast, which is still observed by the Copts, called the Fast of Heraclius.


Conversion policy of Heraclius

In 628, Heraclius reportedly rescinded a decision made by his brother which would have exterminated the Jews of Edessa for supporting the Persians. Robert Bonfil suggests that Heraclius’ change of heart in 630 cannot be separated from the "Jewish Question" and the anti-Jewish world view ubiquitous to Christian thought at that time. He sees the decision as being based more on politics than religion. Heraclius is one of the few Byzantine emperors to have had an imperial conversion campaign. The rarity of such campaigns is thought to be due to Christian theological constraints. In Christian apocalyptic literature, some Jews must remain until the end of time. Christian theologians of the time also had other core theological reasons for rejecting the forced conversion of Jews. In another legend, Heraclius' astrologers are said to have revealed to him that a circumcised people would conquer his empire. Heraclius set out to forcibly convert the Jews of the Byzantine Empire, reportedly advising his friend Dagobert, king of the Franks, to do likewise.


Aftermath

After the successful
Sasanian The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
siege A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict charact ...
of Jerusalem,
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
were given autonomy under Nehemiah Ben Hushiel and Benjamin of Tiberias. Yet this period of Jewish autonomy in Jerusalem only lasted from 614 to 617, as the Persians did not go through with the plans of building a
Third Temple The "Third Temple" (, , ) refers to a hypothetical rebuilt Temple in Jerusalem. It would succeed the First Temple and the Second Temple, the former having been destroyed during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in and the latter having bee ...
, and soon after Heraclius re-conquered Jerusalem. Following the defeat of the Persian Empire, the territory would not remain in Byzantine hands for long. By 638, the Arabs would conquer Jerusalem. Caesarea would remain under Byzantine control until 640. The Arab Islamic Empire under Caliph
Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
conquered the lands of
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
, the Levant, and Egypt.


Demographic impact

Some historians believe the war reduced and weakened the Christian population not just in Jerusalem but across the Near East, allowing the success of the following Arab invasion. Archaeological work within the old City of Jerusalem has partially confirmed contemporary accounts of widespread killing of Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants with the numerous mass graves being dated to the early 7th century. However, neither widespread burning nor destruction of churches have been found in the archaeological record. Despite the claims of large scale destruction, the archaeological evidence does not reveal layers of destruction associated with the Persian conquest. There was also no hard evidence found for the widespread destruction of churches. A significant number of burial sites were allocated according to Strategius. A mass burial grave at Mamilla cave was discovered in 1989 by Israeli
archeologist Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscapes. Archaeol ...
Ronny Reich, near the site where Strategius recorded the massacre took place. The human remains were in such poor condition that only 526 individuals could be identified out of the thousands suspected to be buried there. Demographic continuity might have resulted from population exchange by the victorious Jewish rebels, but apparently also the Christian habitation remained relatively constant, despite the disturbance by the Persian conquest, and no significant impact on the population of Jerusalem was made during the following period of Sassanid dominance.


In apocalyptic literature

The events of the Persian–Byzantine struggle in the Levant and the consequent Arab conquest inspired several apocalyptic Jewish writings of the early Middle Ages. Helping to popularize the idea of a war messiah, the Messiah ben Joseph, who would die paving the way for the Messiah ben David. Among these are the Apocalypse of Zerubbabel, which is partially attributed to the events between the Persian conquest of Palaestina and subsequent
Muslim conquest of Syria The Muslim conquest of the Levant (; ), or Arab conquest of Syria, was a 634–638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate. A part of the wider Arab–Byzantine wars, the Levant was brought under Arab Muslim rule and developed ...
. The Tiburtine Sibyl records that the Jews of the Byzantine Empire would be converted in one hundred and twenty years, seeming to refer to these occurrences, since about one hundred and twenty years elapsed from the time of the Persian war under Anastasius, in 505, to the victory of Heraclius in 628. Some scholars see similarities between these Christian works and their Jewish counterparts.


See also


Jewish and Samaritan revolts

* History of the Jews in the Roman Empire *
Jewish–Roman wars The Jewish–Roman wars were a series of large-scale revolts by the Jews of Judaea against the Roman Empire between 66 and 135 CE. The conflict was driven by Jewish aspirations to restore the political independence lost when Rome conquer ...
**
First Jewish–Roman War The First Jewish–Roman War (66–74 CE), also known as the Great Jewish Revolt, the First Jewish Revolt, the War of Destruction, or the Jewish War, was the first of three major Jewish rebellions against the Roman Empire. Fought in the prov ...
, 66–73 CE **
Bar Kokhba revolt The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 AD) was a major uprising by the Jews of Judaea (Roman province), Judaea against the Roman Empire, marking the final and most devastating of the Jewish–Roman wars. Led by Simon bar Kokhba, the rebels succeeded ...
, 132–136 CE ** Kitos War, 115–117 CE * Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus, 352 CE * Samaritan revolts, 484–572 CE


Related topics

* List of conflicts in the Near East * History of the Jews in the Roman Empire * Yehud Medinata


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jewish Revolt Against Heraclius 610s in the Byzantine Empire 620s in the Byzantine Empire 7th-century rebellions 7th-century Judaism Jewish Persian and Iranian history Battles of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 Holy Land during Byzantine rule Jews and Judaism in the Byzantine Empire Jewish rebellions Rebellions against the Byzantine Empire Medieval Jerusalem Religion in the Byzantine Empire 610s in the Sasanian Empire 620s in the Sasanian Empire Judaism in the Sasanian Empire True Cross