Jewish Military History
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Jewish military history focuses on the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
aspect of history of the Jewish people from ancient times until the modern age.


Ancient Israelite battles

While complete details in the Biblical account of a system of fighting forms are not extant, the
Midrash ''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''.
; or ''midrashot' ...
ic,
Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...
ic, and Rabbinic accounts testify to fighting and combat strategies used by the ancient
Israelite Israelites were a Hebrew language, Hebrew-speaking ethnoreligious group, consisting of tribes that lived in Canaan during the Iron Age. Modern scholarship describes the Israelites as emerging from indigenous Canaanites, Canaanite populations ...
s as well as
legend A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the ...
ary depictions of Israelite combatants.


Against Egypt (Late Bronze Age)


The campaign of Pharaoh Merneptah in Canaan

The initial years of Merneptah's reign, the fourth Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, were characterized by a series of military campaigns, as recorded on the
Merneptah Stele The Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israel Stele or the Victory Stele of Merneptah, is an inscription by Merneptah, a pharaoh in ancient Egypt who reigned from 1213 to 1203 BCE. Discovered by Flinders Petrie at Thebes, Egypt, Thebes in 1896, i ...
. Although the main focus of the
Stele A stele ( ) or stela ( )The plural in English is sometimes stelai ( ) based on direct transliteration of the Greek, sometimes stelae or stelæ ( ) based on the inflection of Greek nouns in Latin, and sometimes anglicized to steles ( ) or stela ...
is Merneptah's victory over the invading
Libyans Demographics of Libya is the demography of Libya, specifically covering population density, Ethnic group, ethnicity, and Religion in Libya, religious affiliations, as well as other aspects of the Libyan population. All figures are from the Uni ...
and
Sea Peoples The Sea Peoples were a group of tribes hypothesized to have attacked Ancient Egypt, Egypt and other Eastern Mediterranean regions around 1200 BC during the Late Bronze Age. The hypothesis was proposed by the 19th-century Egyptology, Egyptologis ...
during the fifth year of his reign (1208 BCE), the text concludes with a short poem depicting his victories over various elements in the land of
Canaan CanaanThe current scholarly edition of the Septuagint, Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interprets. 2. ed. / recogn. et emendavit Robert Hanhart. Stuttgart : D ...
, namely the cities of
Ashkelon Ashkelon ( ; , ; ) or Ashqelon, is a coastal city in the Southern District (Israel), Southern District of Israel on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast, south of Tel Aviv, and north of the border with the Gaza Strip. The modern city i ...
,
Gezer Gezer, or Tel Gezer (), in – Tell Jezar or Tell el-Jezari is an archaeological site in the foothills of the Judaean Mountains at the border of the Shfela region roughly midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. It is now an List of national parks ...
and Yano'am and the ethnic group Israel:
"Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe: Ashkelon has been overcome; Gezer has been captured; Yano'am was made non-existent. Israel is laid waste (and) his seed is not."
While some scholars have questioned the accuracy of the interpretation of "Israel" and its relationship to biblical Israel, the majority of Egyptologists concur that it should indeed be understood as referring to Israel, and mainstream scholarship acknowledges a connection between the Israel mentioned and biblical Israel. It appears that the stele was erected after a number of rebellions in
Canaan CanaanThe current scholarly edition of the Septuagint, Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interprets. 2. ed. / recogn. et emendavit Robert Hanhart. Stuttgart : D ...
were repressed. The
book of Joshua The Book of Joshua is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament, and is the first book of the Deuteronomistic history, the story of Israel from the conquest of Canaan to the Babylonian captivity, Babylonian exile. It tells of the ...
relates a military engagement between the Israelites and the king of Gezer and his troops, though it does not mention that Gezer was conquered by the Israelites. According to Richard Gabriel, Merneptah sent troops to
Gezer Gezer, or Tel Gezer (), in – Tell Jezar or Tell el-Jezari is an archaeological site in the foothills of the Judaean Mountains at the border of the Shfela region roughly midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. It is now an List of national parks ...
to limit the Israelite campaign in the
Shephelah The Shephelah () or Shfela (), or the Judaean Foothills (), is a transitional region of soft-sloping rolling hills in south-central Israel stretching over between the Judaean Mountains and the Coastal Plain. The different use of the term "Jud ...
and to prevent the Israelite advance in the region, in order to keep the road over the central mountain range towards the
Jordan river The Jordan River or River Jordan (, ''Nahr al-ʾUrdunn''; , ''Nəhar hayYardēn''), also known as ''Nahr Al-Sharieat'' (), is a endorheic river in the Levant that flows roughly north to south through the Sea of Galilee and drains to the Dead ...
in Egyptian hands. There is evidence that suggests that the Merrneptah stele refers to this campaign.


Against Assyria, Aram and Moab (Iron Age II)

As opposed to the Late Bronze Age, during which the region was dominated by Egypt, between the 9th-7th centuries BCE the Assyrian empire rose and gradually but aggressively asserted its dominion over the local kingdoms, until its decline at the end of the 7th century BCE. The initial Assyrian incursions into the western territories, including those of Aram and Israel were initiated by Ashurnasirpal II (884-859 BCE) and his successor Shalmaneser III (859-824 BCE). These military campaigns were ultimately thwarted by a coalition formed among the western kingdoms, particularly in the battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. It was during the next century between the mid-ninth century and the mid-eighth century BCE that the local kingdoms, such as Aram, Israel, Judah and Moab, enjoyed a certain degree of independence, with one kingdom occasionally asserting its dominance over others. Such was the case when the kingdom of Israel conquered lands from the kingdom of Aram and when the Hazael led Aramean armies into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. It was during this period too that Omride kings dominated Moabite lands and Mesha, king of Moab regained hold of them. During the reign of Tiglath-pileser (745–727 BCE) nearly the entire Near East was brutally subjugated and incorporated as vassal states under Assyrian control. This expansion prompted a resurgence of the coalition and a renewal of the coalition opposing Assyrian dominance, ultimately leading to the conquest of Samaria by Shalmaneser V in 722 BCE. This event marked the dissolution of the politically independent northern kingdom of Israel.


Battle of Qarqar

The Battle of Qarqar took place in 853 BCE, and was fought by
Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III (''Šulmānu-ašarēdu'', "the god Shulmanu is pre-eminent") was king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 859 BC to 824 BC. His long reign was a constant series of campaigns against the eastern tribes, the Babylonians, the nations o ...
, king of
Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...
, and a coalition of 11 kings including
Ahab Ahab (; ; ; ; ) was a king of the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), the son and successor of King Omri, and the husband of Jezebel of Sidon, according to the Hebrew Bible. He is depicted in the Bible as a Baal worshipper and is criticized for causi ...
, king of
Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
. In the
Kurkh Monoliths The Kurkh Monoliths are two Assyrian stelae of and 879 BC that contain a description of the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and his son Shalmaneser III. The Monoliths were discovered in 1861 by a British archaeologist John George Taylor, who was ...
, it is mentioned that the Israelite forces constituted troops and 2000 chariots.


The campaigns of Hazael in the lands of Isreal and Judah

The Tel Dan Stele, discovered in 1993–94 at the archaeological site of Tel Dan, tells of a seesawing military conflict between the kingdom of Dasmascus and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, beginning in the mid 9th century BCE. Correlating with the texts of the monolith of Kurkh, the Baghdad text, the Kurbail statue of Shlmaneser III, the Aramean dedications on horse bliders and forehead ornaments, and the biblical text it was most probably erected there during the mid-ninth century BCE by
Hazael Hazael (; ; Old Aramaic 𐤇𐤆𐤀𐤋 ''Ḥzʔl'') was a king of Aram-Damascus mentioned in the Bible. Under his reign, Aram-Damascus became an empire that ruled over large parts of contemporary Syria and Israel-Samaria. While he was likely ...
of
Aram-Damascus Aram-Damascus ( ) was an Arameans, Aramean polity that existed from the late-12th century BCE until 732 BCE, and was centred around the city of Damascus in the Southern Levant. Alongside various tribal lands, it was bounded in its later years b ...
, in honor of his successful occupation of the prominent Israelite city of Dan. The stele consists of three fragments constituting part of a triumphal inscription in
Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...
. The beginning of the surviving fragments has the lament of Hazael over the conquering or infiltration of the lands of his father by the king or kings of Israel:
"And the king of I -ael entered previously in my father's land"
In the end of the inscription, the speaker boasts of his victories over the king of Israel and his ally the king of the "House of David", who are mentioned as having commanded vast armies:
"And I killed two power ulkin s who harnessed two thou and cha-iots and two thousand horsemen. Joam son of [Ahab">Jehoram_of_Israel.html" ;"title=" killed Jehoram of Israel">Joam son of [Ahab] king of Israel, and I killed Ahaziah of Judah, [Achaz]yahu son of [Joram king] of the House of David."
It is believed that the stele was shattered by the Israelites after they repossessed the city of Dan, in order to protest the insult of its erection by the Aramean king in their land. File:Merenptah Israel Stele Cairo.jpg, Merneptah Stele File:P1120870 Louvre stèle de Mésha AO5066 rwk.JPG, Mesha Stele File:Samuel and Saidye Bronfman Archaeology WingDSCN5105.JPG, Tel Dan Stele


The occupation of Lands by Mesha of Moab

Mesha Stele was discovered in 1868–70 and was created around 840 BCE by King
Mesha King Mesha (Moabite language, Moabite: , vocalized as: ; Hebrew: מֵישַׁע ''Mēšaʿ'') was a king of Moab in the 9th century BC, known most famously for having the Mesha Stele inscribed and erected at Dhiban, Dibon, Jordan. In this inscrip ...
of
Moab Moab () was an ancient Levant, Levantine kingdom whose territory is today located in southern Jordan. The land is mountainous and lies alongside much of the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The existence of the Kingdom of Moab is attested to by ...
. Mesha tells how Kemosh, the God of Moab, had been angry with his people and had allowed them to be subjugated to Israel, but at length Kemosh returned and assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab.


The campaigns of Sennachrib against Israel and Judah

Sennacherib's campaign in Judah was a military conflict in 701 BCE between
Kingdom of Judah The Kingdom of Judah was an Israelites, Israelite kingdom of the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. Centered in the highlands to the west of the Dead Sea, the kingdom's capital was Jerusalem. It was ruled by the Davidic line for four centuries ...
and the
Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...
, the conflict is part of the greater conflict of Sennacherib's campaigns.


= Siege of Jerusalem

= In 721 BCE, the Assyrian army captured the Israelite capital at Samaria and carried away the citizens of the northern kingdom into captivity. The virtual destruction of Israel left the southern kingdom, Judah, to fend for itself among warring Near Eastern kingdoms. The siege took place in approximately 701 BCE by
Sennacherib Sennacherib ( or , meaning "Sin (mythology), Sîn has replaced the brothers") was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 705BC until his assassination in 681BC. The second king of the Sargonid dynasty, Sennacherib is one of the most famous A ...
, king of Assyria. The siege failed and Jerusalem survived until its eventual destruction by the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar.


= Siege of Lachish

= The siege of Lachish occurred in 701 BCE, by the Neo-Assyrian empire, and ended with the conquest of the town. The towns inhabitants led into captivity and the leaders of Lachish tortured to death. The town was abandoned, but resettled after the return from Babylonia.


Against Egypt (Late Period)


Battle of Megiddo

The Battle of Megiddo is recorded as having taken place in 609 BCE with
Necho II Necho II (sometimes Nekau, Neku, Nechoh, or Nikuu; Greek: Νεκώς Β'; ) of Egypt was a king of the 26th Dynasty (610–595 BC), which ruled from Sais. Necho undertook a number of construction projects across his kingdom. In his reign, accor ...
of
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
leading his army to Carchemish to fight with his allies the
Assyrians Assyrians (, ) are an ethnic group indigenous to Mesopotamia, a geographical region in West Asia. Modern Assyrians share descent directly from the ancient Assyrians, one of the key civilizations of Mesopotamia. While they are distinct from ot ...
against the
Babylonians Babylonia (; , ) was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as an Akkadian-populated but Amorite-ru ...
at
Carchemish Carchemish ( or ), also spelled Karkemish (), was an important ancient capital in the northern part of the region of Syria. At times during its history the city was independent, but it was also part of the Mitanni, Hittite and Neo-Assyrian ...
in northern Syria. This required passing through territory controlled by the
Kingdom of Judah The Kingdom of Judah was an Israelites, Israelite kingdom of the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. Centered in the highlands to the west of the Dead Sea, the kingdom's capital was Jerusalem. It was ruled by the Davidic line for four centuries ...
and Necho requested permission from its king,
Josiah Josiah () or Yoshiyahu was the 16th king of Judah (–609 BCE). According to the Hebrew Bible, he instituted major religious reforms by removing official worship of gods other than Yahweh. Until the 1990s, the biblical description of Josiah’s ...
. Josiah refused to let the Egyptians pass and a battle took place in which Josiah was killed. The battle is recorded in the
Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...
,
1 Esdras 1 Esdras (), also Esdras A, Greek Esdras, Greek Ezra, or 3 Esdras, is the ancient Greek Septuagint version of the biblical Book of Ezra in use within the early church and among many modern Christians with varying degrees of canonicity. 1 Esdra ...
, and the writings of
Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...
.


Against Babylon (Iron Age II)

The Jewish–Babylonian war was a military conflict between the Kingdom of Judah and Babylonia that lasted from 601 to 586 BCE. The conflict marked the end of the Kingdom of Judah and Jewish independence until the Hasmonean revolt. After Babylonia invaded Jerusalem it destroyed the First Temple, and started the Babylonian exile.


First siege of Jerusalem

In 605 BCE
Nebuchadnezzar II Nebuchadnezzar II, also Nebuchadrezzar II, meaning "Nabu, watch over my heir", was the second king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from the death of his father Nabopolassar in 605 BC to his own death in 562 BC. Often titled Nebuchadnezzar ...
, king of
Babylon Babylon ( ) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-s ...
defeated Pharaoh Neco at the
Battle of Carchemish The Battle of Carchemish was a battle fought around 605 BCE between the armies of Egypt, allied with the remnants of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, against the armies of Babylonia. The forces would clash at Carchemish, an important military crossing a ...
, and subsequently invaded Judah. To avoid the destruction of Jerusalem, King
Jehoiakim Jehoiakim, also sometimes spelled Jehoikim was the eighteenth and antepenultimate King of Judah from 609 to 598 BC. He was the second son of King Josiah () and Zebidah, the daughter of Pedaiah of Rumah. His birth name was Eliakim. Background Af ...
of Jerusalem, in his third year, changed allegiances from Egypt to Babylon. He paid tribute from the treasury in Jerusalem, some temple artifacts, and some of the royal family and nobility as hostages. In 601 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar failed to invade Egypt, the failure led to rebellions among states in the Levant including Judah. Nebuchadnezzar sieged Jerusalem in 597 BCE, and managed to get in and capture king Jehoiachin,2 Kings 24 and all of the Aristocracy of Jerusalem. The siege resulted with fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the First Temple. Then Nebuchadnezzar exiled of the officers, and the craftsmen, and 7000 soldiers.


Second Siege of Jerusalem

In July 587 BCE, Zedekiah rebelled against Babylonia, making an alliance with Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar sieged Jerusalem again, starving the people. The siege resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the fall of the
Kingdom of Judah The Kingdom of Judah was an Israelites, Israelite kingdom of the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. Centered in the highlands to the west of the Dead Sea, the kingdom's capital was Jerusalem. It was ruled by the Davidic line for four centuries ...
.


Classic era


Maccabees

The
Maccabees The Maccabees (), also spelled Machabees (, or , ; or ; , ), were a group of Jews, Jewish rebel warriors who took control of Judea, which at the time was part of the Seleucid Empire. Its leaders, the Hasmoneans, founded the Hasmonean dynasty ...
(
Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...
: מכבים or מקבים, ''Makabim'') were a Jewish warrior community who spearheaded a national liberation movement that fought for and won independence from
Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus IV Epiphanes ( 215 BC–November/December 164 BC) was king of the Seleucid Empire from 175 BC until his death in 164 BC. Notable events during Antiochus' reign include his near-conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt, his persecution of the Jews of ...
of the
Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...
Seleucid dynasty, who was succeeded by his infant son Antiochus V Eupator. The Maccabees founded the Hasmonean royal
dynasty A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a monarchy, monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A dynasty may also be referred to as a "house", "family" or "clan", among others. H ...
and established Jewish independence in the
Land of Israel The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definition ...
for about one hundred years, from 164 BCE to 63 BCE.


In service of the Romans

Around 7 BCE, King Herod of Judaea invited Zamaris, a Jew from Babylonia, and his 500 mounted archers to settle in the village of ''Bathyra'' in
Batanea Batanaea or Batanea was an area often mentioned between the first century BCE and the fourth century CE. It is often mixed with the biblical Bashan, the part of the Biblical Holy Land, northeast of the Jordan River, as its Latinized form. Bash ...
, in modern Syria, granting them tax exemptions. This settlement was tasked with protecting Batanea from Trachonite brigands and safeguarding Jewish pilgrims traveling to Jerusalem. Additionally, Ein Targhuna, an archaeological site near
Massah Massah () and Meribah (, also spelled "Mirabah") are place names found in the Hebrew Bible. The Israelites are said to have travelled through Massah and Meribah during the Exodus, although the continuous list of visited stations in Numbers 33 ...
, Libya, is believed to have been a Jewish military settlement established to defend the area from raids, possibly consisting of troops relocated from Trachonitis by Augustus.


New Testament

Luke's Gospel The Gospel of Luke is the third of the New Testament's four canonical Gospels. It tells of the origins, Nativity of Jesus, birth, Ministry of Jesus, ministry, Crucifixion of Jesus, death, Resurrection of Jesus, resurrection, and Ascension of ...
refers to "soldiers" among those who heard the message proclaimed by
John the Baptist John the Baptist ( – ) was a Jewish preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early first century AD. He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist ...
, and who asked for direction on what his call to
repentance Repentance is reviewing one's actions and feeling contrition or regret for past or present wrongdoings, which is accompanied by commitment to and actual actions that show and prove a change for the better. In modern times, it is generally seen ...
required of them.: English Standard Version Theologian Albert Barnes notes that "whether these were Jews or Romans cannot be ascertained". John's instructions were that they should avoid extortion and false accusation, and be content with their wages.


Jewish–Roman wars

Judaea, which had existed as an independent kingdom under the Hasmonean dynasty, fell to Roman conquest in 63 BCE. After several decades of rule by client kings, it was formally incorporated into the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
in 6 CE as a directly administered province named Iudaea. This period saw the deterioration of Jewish-Roman relations, marked by the rule of harsh governors, ethnic and religious tensions in Judaea and other places in the empire, economic discrepancies, and growing nationalistic sentiments. These tensions eventually led to the
Jewish–Roman wars The Jewish–Roman wars were a series of large-scale revolts by the Jews of Judaea against the Roman Empire between 66 and 135 CE. The conflict was driven by Jewish aspirations to restore the political independence lost when Rome conquer ...
, spanning from 66 to 135 CE. The
First Jewish–Roman War The First Jewish–Roman War (66–74 CE), also known as the Great Jewish Revolt, the First Jewish Revolt, the War of Destruction, or the Jewish War, was the first of three major Jewish rebellions against the Roman Empire. Fought in the prov ...
(66–73 CE), also known as the First Jewish Revolt, erupted in Judaea in mid-66 CE. Tensions escalated when an ethnic conflict between Jews and Greeks in Caesarea sparked unrest, further inflamed by the Roman governor Gessius Florus, who seized temple funds and ordered two massacres in Jerusalem. In response, Jerusalem's inhabitants expelled pro-Roman officials, destroyed the Roman garrison, and ceased offering sacrifices in the Temple for the emperor. Cestius Gallus, the governor of Syria, attempted to suppress the uprising by invading Judaea but later withdrew for no clear reason from Jerusalem. The retreating force was caught in a disastrous ambush at Beth Horon, where Jewish forces annihilated a force equivalent to a legion. In Jerusalem, a moderate government formed under Ananus ben Ananus, organized defenses by strengthening the city's fortifications, appointing regional commanders across the country, and
minting coins A mint is an industrial facility which manufacturing, manufactures coins that can be used as currency. The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. In the beginning, hammered coinage or cast coinage were the chief means ...
symbolizing the new state's independence. In 67 CE, Roman general
Vespasian Vespasian (; ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79) was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolida ...
arrived in Judaea and launched a campaign in
Galilee Galilee (; ; ; ) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon consisting of two parts: the Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and the Lower Galilee (, ; , ). ''Galilee'' encompasses the area north of the Mount Carmel-Mount Gilboa ridge and ...
, capturing and destroying key rebel strongholds, Yodfat and Gamla. Meanwhile, Jerusalem descended into chaos as rival factions, including those led by Simon bar Giora and
John of Gischala John of Gischala (, ; , 70) was a leader of the First Jewish-Roman War, first Jewish revolt against the Romans. History During the Jewish war with Rome, John of Gischala (), son of Levi (), vied with Josephus over the control of Galilee and ama ...
, fought for dominance. After Emperor
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...
's death, Vespasian left for Rome, leaving his son
Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus ( ; 30 December 39 – 13 September AD 81) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death, becoming the first Roman emperor ever to succeed h ...
to continue the campaign. In 70 CE, after a four-month siege, the Jewish capital and rebel center of Jerusalem fell. The
Second Temple The Second Temple () was the Temple in Jerusalem that replaced Solomon's Temple, which was destroyed during the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC), Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. It was constructed around 516 BCE and later enhanced by Herod ...
was destroyed, and the city was razed. Over the following years,
Legio X Fretensis Legio X Fretensis ("Tenth legion of the Strait") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was founded by the young Gaius Octavius (later to become Augustus Caesar) in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of civil war that started the dissolu ...
subdued the remaining resistance, culminating in the fall of Masada in 73 or 74 CE. Between 115 and 117 CE, the Diaspora Revolt saw uprisings by Jewish communities in the Roman provinces of
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
,
Cyrenaica Cyrenaica ( ) or Kyrenaika (, , after the city of Cyrene), is the eastern region of Libya. Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the 16th and 25th meridians east, including the Kufra District. The coastal region, als ...
, and
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, occurring while Emperor
Trajan Trajan ( ; born Marcus Ulpius Traianus, 18 September 53) was a Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. He was a philanthropic ruler and a successful soldier ...
was engaged in his Parthian campaign. Likely triggered by the destruction of the Temple, ethnic tensions, the Fiscus Judaicus tax, and messianic expectations, the revolts targeted local populations with violence, including mass killings and the destruction of roads, civic structures, and pagan temples. There were also reports of a Jewish rebellion in Mesopotamia, which appears to have been part of a broader resistance against Roman expansion into the
Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power centered in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe ...
. To suppress the revolts, Trajan sent two of his top generals: Marcius Turbo, who led military and naval operations to restore order in Egypt and Libya, and Lusius Quietus, who managed the suppression in Mesopotamia and an unrest in Judaea known in rabbinic texts as the Kitos War. By late 117 CE, the revolts had been largely quelled. The revolt resulted in the annihilation and expulsion of Jewish communities from several provinces. A victory festival was still observed in
Oxyrhynchus Oxyrhynchus ( ; , ; ; ), also known by its modern name Al-Bahnasa (), is a city in Middle Egypt located about 160 km south-southwest of Cairo in Minya Governorate. It is also an important archaeological site. Since the late 19th century, t ...
eighty years later. From 132 to 136 CE, the
Bar Kokhba revolt The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 AD) was a major uprising by the Jews of Judaea (Roman province), Judaea against the Roman Empire, marking the final and most devastating of the Jewish–Roman wars. Led by Simon bar Kokhba, the rebels succeeded ...
took place, representing the last major Jewish effort to reclaim independence in Judaea. Led by Simon Bar Kokhba, who assumed the title of nasi, the Jewish forces briefly established a state in the regions of Judea (excluding Jerusalem) and possibly Perea, even minting their own coins. Ancient sources cite
Hadrian Hadrian ( ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic peoples, Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia gens, Aelia '' ...
's establishment of the pagan city Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem and prohibition of circumcision as key catalysts for the revolt. The discovery of extensive hiding complexes, especially in the Judaean Lowlands, supports reports of large-scale preparations by the Jews. In response, the Romans assembled a massive military force, likely over 50,000 soldiers, to suppress the uprising, while the exact size of Bar Kokhba's forces remains uncertain. The Roman victory led to the near-total destruction and depopulation of central Judea, with every excavated village in the area being razed. The aftermath included mass enslavement of Jewish survivors, and the flight of refugees to caves. The Romans renamed the province from Judaea to
Syria Palaestina Syria Palaestina ( ) was the renamed Roman province formerly known as Judaea, following the Roman suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, in what then became known as the Palestine region between the early 2nd and late 4th centuries AD. The pr ...
, a punitive measure designed to erase Jewish identity and underscore the severity of their suppression. The revolt's failure marked a pivotal shift in Jewish history, leading to the decline of Jewish nationalism and the rise of religious leadership over political leadership.


Late antiquity


Himyarite Kingdom

In modern-day Yemen, the Ancient
Himyarite Kingdom Himyar was a polity in the southern highlands of Yemen, as well as the name of the region which it claimed. Until 110 BCE, it was integrated into the Qataban, Qatabanian kingdom, afterwards being recognized as an independent kingdom. According ...
appears to have abandoned polytheism and converted to Judaism around the year 380. Accompanied with a strong military prowess, they proved to be a matching force to the Christian empires of Byzantium and Axum for 200 years. After having conquered a major part of the Arabic peninsula, the Himyarite Empire has been annexed by the Kingdom of Axum.


Revolt against Gallus

In mid-4th century Jews of Galilee launched the Revolt against Gallus, aiming to defeat Roman troops across Galilee.


Exilarch revolt in Persia

Mar Zutra II, who came into
Exilarch The exilarch was the leader of the Jewish community in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) during the era of the Parthians, Sasanians and Abbasid Caliphate up until the Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 1258, with intermittent gaps due to ongoing polit ...
office at the age of fifteen, took advantage of the confusion into which
Mazdak Mazdak (, Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭦𐭣𐭪, also Mazdak the Younger; died c. 524 or 528) was an Iranian Zoroastrian '' mobad'' (priest) and religious reformer who gained influence during the reign of the Sasanian emperor Kavadh I. He claimed to ...
's communistic attempts had plunged Sasanian Persia, to obtain by force of arms for a short time a sort of political independence for the Jews of Babylon. King Kobad, however, punished him by crucifying him on the bridge of
Mahuza Al-Mada'in (, ; ''Māḥozā''; ) was an ancient metropolis situated on the Tigris in what is now Iraq. It was located between the ancient royal centers of Ctesiphon and Seleucia, and was founded by the Sasanian Empire. The city's name was used ...
c. 502.


Byzantine period

In early 7th century Near Eastern Jews launched
Jewish revolt against Heraclius The Jewish revolt against Heraclius was part of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 and is considered the last time Jews had autonomy over Jerusalem prior to modern times. Background Jews and Samaritans were persecuted frequently by the ...
, in hopes of gaining an autonomy in Jerusalem with Persian Sasanian support.


Middle Ages

According to a number of accounts various Middle Eastern and Asian Jewish communities, who were either known for their fighting prowess,


Samuel ibn 'Adiya Arabian warrior poet

Poet and warrior; lived in
Arabia The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
in the first half of the 6th century CE. His mother was of the royal tribe of Ghassan, while his father, according to some, was descended from Aaron, or, according to others, from Kahin, son of Harun and progenitor of the Jewish tribes of Kuraitza and Nathir. Samuel owned a castle near Taima (eight hours north of Medina), built by his grandfather 'Adiya and called, from its mixed color, Al-Ablak. It was situated on a high hill and was a halting-place for travelers to and from Syria. More than for his poetic talents Samuel ibn 'Adiya is famous for his connection with the warrior-poet and prince Amru al-Kais, which won for him the epithet "faithful", and gave rise to the saying, still common among the Arabs, "more faithful than Samuel." Samuel ibn 'Adiya's reputation as a poet rests upon one of the first poems in the collection called the "Hamasa." It is full of warlike vigor and courage, and manifests a high ideal of honor. Another poem attributed to him has been published in Arabic and Hebrew, with an English translation, by H. Hirschfeld ("J. Q. R." xvii. 431–440).


Jews of China

There are many theories surrounding when Jews first settled in China. Despite trading in China since at least the 9th century, many modern scholars "unanimously" believe an actual community was founded in
Kaifeng Kaifeng ( zh, s=开封, p=Kāifēng) is a prefecture-level city in east-Zhongyuan, central Henan province, China. It is one of the Historical capitals of China, Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and ...
City,
Henan Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
province during the early years of the
Northern Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms, endin ...
. However, one of the three
stelae A stele ( ) or stela ( )The plural in English is sometimes stelai ( ) based on direct transliteration of the Greek, sometimes stelae or stelæ ( ) based on the inflection of Greek nouns in Latin, and sometimes anglicized to steles ( ) or stela ...
(stone edicts) left by the community claims "they entered and settled in China during the
Han Dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
", almost 800 years earlier. The stele dating 1489 states that Song dynasty founder Emperor Taizu (mistakenly referred to as
Ming Taizu The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, founding emperor of the Ming dyna ...
) went on military campaigns to "pacify the Under Heaven" during the early years of his reign.Weisz: p. 11, see footnotes 50–53 on p. 13 When the armies successfully gained control of China and solidified the power of the Song dynasty, Emperor Taizu bestowed the "sinicized" Jewish soldiers with land "to settle and enjoy their occupation in the villages". Jewish soldiers continued to serve in the Chinese military through the
Southern Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms, endin ...
. The stele dating 1512 states "those who subdued the enemy and resisted aggression and were 'boundlessly loyal to the country'" were successful in their endeavors. The term "boundlessly loyal to the country" refers to the famous tattoo on the back of General Yue Fei, a noted patriot and martyr. So the loyalty of the Jewish soldiers was compared to that of Yue Fei. The same source even claims that "Israelites" served in Yue Fei's armies and helped to combat the Jurchen armies invading China during that time. Modern scholars that translate the 1489 stele mention how a physician named Ancheng received a sizable amount of money from "Prince Ding of Zhou prefecture" to rebuild the community's destroyed synagogue in 1421. In 1423, Ancheng was given the surname "Chao" by the emperor himself, received the "rank of Military Commissioner in the Embroidered Uniform Guard" and was promoted to "Assistant Military Commissioner of
Zhejiang ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese) , image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg , image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains , image_map = Zhejiang i ...
." However, a journal entry from 1965 formally corrected a translation error that proceeding authors still make today. The physician Ancheng was "apparently a romantic fabrication" and the actual person was "a common soldier named An San, who belonged to the Honan Central Bodyguard Division".White, William Charles. ''Chinese Jews''. New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation, 1966 (2nd Edition), p. 17 He had warned the
Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
of a plot against him by Prince Zhou, An's military commander and benefactor of the Jewish community, and was subsequently promoted (as mentioned above) and given the "properly Chinese name Chao Ch'eng (Chao the Honest), and in due course became a notable leader of the community and ancestor of the principal Jewish clan."


Habbani Jews of Southern Yemen

In 1912 Zionist emissary Shmuel Yavnieli came into contact with Habbani Jews who ransomed him when he was captured and robbed by eight Bedouin in southern Yemen. Yavnieli wrote about the Jews of Habban describing them in the following way.
The Jews in these parts are held in high esteem by everyone in Yemen and Aden. They are said to be courageous, always with their weapons and wild long hair, and the names of their towns are mentioned by the Jews of Yemen with great admiration.
There are a number of legends about the origins of the Jews of Habban. The most prominent is that they descend from Judean soldiers who were stationed in southern Arabia by King Herod of Jerusalem during the Second Temple period. Herod dispatched a unit of Jews in the region to assist the Romans with fighting wars in the area. Unlike the Jews of northern Yemen the Habbani Jews wore: Jambiyya (curved knife), Matznaph (turban) and Avne`t (sash).
Benjamin of Tudela Benjamin of Tudela (), also known as Benjamin ben Jonah, was a medieval Jewish traveler who visited Europe, Asia, and Africa in the twelfth century. His vivid descriptions of western Asia preceded those of Marco Polo by a hundred years. With his ...
(twelfth century) found an independent Jewish warrior tribe living in the highlands of Khorasan near Nisapur, numbering many thousand families, regarding themselves as descendants of Dan, Zebulun, Asher, and Naphtali, under a Jewish prince of the name of Joseph Amarkala ha-Levi. Another independent Jewish tribe bent upon warlike expeditions is mentioned by Benjamin as living in the district of Tehama in Yemen
ARMY – JewishEncyclopedia.com


Mountain Jews of Daghestan

:''And we, the Tats'' :''We, Samson warriors,'' :''Bar Kochba's heirs...'' :''we went into battles'' :''and bitterly, heroically'' :''struggled for our freedom'' :The Song of the Mountain Jews
The Jews of Daghestan lived isolated and in one of the most remote, impenetrable areas in the world for many centuries. They have been historically known for their fierce and war-like nature. In dress and custom they were hardly distinguishable from other Caucasian fighting people in the region. Though they are considered
dhimmi ' ( ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligation under ''s ...
by their surrounding Muslim population, the Mountain Jews owned land and were known to be fierce, not hesitating to defend, by sword or the rifle, their family, religion, or personal dignity.
''The Jews of Daghestan greatly resemble the other warlike inhabitants of this mountainous region; and they have acquired the virtues as well as the faults of the latter. There is a tradition among the Jews of Daghestan that they are the descendants of the Lost Ten Tribes; but the history of their wanderings is now forgotten, the written documents which they once possessed having in the course of time been either lost or destroyed. They differ from their Christian and Mohammedan neighbors in speech, using the Tat language, which is a combination of Persian and Hebrew. Their writing is a mixture of square characters and Rashi. They wear the Circassian dress, and always go heavily armed, even sleeping without having removed their weapons.''
It is possible that the Mountain Jews are descendants of Persian-Jewish soldiers who were stationed in the Caucasus by the Sasanian kings in the fifth or sixth century to protect the area from the onslaughts of the Huns and other nomadic invaders from the east. Under the impact of the invading Turkish hordes, later generations of Jewish inhabitants of the Caucasian lowlands were forced to migrate even further north to Daghestan.


Jews of Tirdirma, Mali

According to a West African Arabic record called the '' Tarikh al-fattash'', in 1402 in Tiridirma near the Niger river lived a community of Jews known as the Bani Israeel who were said to have seven rulers, 333 wells, and a well trained army. The record suggests that their presence in the area preceded the rise of Islam.


Jewish soldiers of Islamic Spain

Jewish soldiers assisted Childeric in his war against Wamba. The
Moors The term Moor is an Endonym and exonym, exonym used in European languages to designate the Muslims, Muslim populations of North Africa (the Maghreb) and the Iberian Peninsula (particularly al-Andalus) during the Middle Ages. Moors are not a s ...
are said to have entrusted to Jews the guardianship of the conquered cities of Spain. Under
Alfonso VI of Castile Alphons (Latinized ''Alphonsus'', ''Adelphonsus'', or ''Adefonsus'') is a male given name recorded from the 8th century (Alfonso I of Asturias, r. 739–757) in the Christian successor states of the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. I ...
, in 1086, Jews fought against Yusuf ibn Teshufin in the battle of Zalaka, with such heroism that the battle-field was covered with their bodies. Under
Alfonso VIII of Castile Alfonso VIII (11 November 11555 October 1214), called the Noble (El Noble) or the one of Las Navas (el de las Navas), was King of Castile from 1158 to his death and King of Toledo. After having suffered a great defeat with his own army at Alarc ...
. (1166–1214) there were many warriors among the wealthy and cultured Jews of Toledo that fought bravely against the Moors. Alfonso X, called "the Wise", while infante, had many Jews in his army; and in the capture of Seville (1298) the Jewish warriors distinguished themselves so highly that, in compensation for their services, Alfonso allotted to them certain lands for the formation of a Jewish village. He also transferred to them three mosques which they turned into synagogues. The cruel fanaticism of the Moors had alienated the Jews, who were now won over to the Christians by the tolerant rule of the latter. Jews fought bravely at the side of Pedro the Cruel in defense of the cities of Toledo, Briviesca, and Burgos, against Henry de Trastamara, his brother, and had to pay for their loyalty to their king either with their lives and the lives of their undefended wives and children, or, as the Jews of Burgos had to do, with a heavy ransom to the relentless victor.


Jewish defenders during the First Crusade

Jews fought side-by-side with Egyptian
Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate (; ), also known as the Fatimid Empire, was a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty, Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty. Spanning a large area of North Africa ...
soldiers to defend
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
against the Crusaders during the
First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim conquest ...
.Brown, Michael L. ''Our Hands Are Stained with Blood: The Tragic Story of the "Church" and the Jewish People''. Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image Publishers, 1992 ()
Saint Louis University Saint Louis University (SLU) is a private university, private Society of Jesus, Jesuit research university in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Founded in 1818 by Louis William Valentine DuBourg, it is the oldest university west of the Missi ...
Professor Thomas Madden, author of ''A Concise History of the Crusades'', claims the "Jewish Defenders" of the city knew the rules of warfare and retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death" since the Crusaders had breached the outer walls.CRoss Purposes: The Crusades
( Hoover Institute television show). The entire episode can be viewed with RealPlayer or Windows Media Player. The website includes the corresponding transcription of the dialogue between the host and two guests.
However, another source states the joint Jewish-Egyptian forces retreated from the walls and made their last stand against the crusaders by the
Temple Mount The Temple Mount (), also known as the Noble Sanctuary (Arabic: الحرم الشريف, 'Haram al-Sharif'), and sometimes as Jerusalem's holy esplanade, is a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem that has been venerated as a ...
, only then going to their respective houses of worship once they were overpowered. According to the Muslim chronicle of
Ibn al-Qalanisi Abū Yaʿlā Ḥamzah ibn al-Asad ibn al-Qalānisī (; c. 1071 – 18 March 1160) was an Arab politician and chronicler in 12th-century Damascus. Biography Abu Ya'la ('father of Ya'la'), whose surname was al-Qalanisi ('the Hatter'), descended fro ...
, "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads." Gibb, H. A. R. ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi''. Dover Publications, 2003 (), p. 48


Piracy against Spanish vessels

In response to the Spanish
Inquisition The Inquisition was a Catholic Inquisitorial system#History, judicial procedure where the Ecclesiastical court, ecclesiastical judges could initiate, investigate and try cases in their jurisdiction. Popularly it became the name for various med ...
, a number of Spanish Jews who had left turned to
piracy Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and valuable goods, or taking hostages. Those who conduct acts of piracy are call ...
against Spanish ships.


Modern times


The Beardlings

In 1794 Colonel Berek Joselewicz raised a cavalry regiment of 500 Jewish volunteers which fought against the Russian Army in the
Kościuszko Uprising The Kościuszko Uprising, also known as the Polish Uprising of 1794, Second Polish War, Polish Campaign of 1794, and the Polish Revolution of 1794, was an uprising against the Russian and Prussian influence on the Polish–Lithuanian Common ...
in Poland.


Nili

Nili NILI () was a Jewish espionage network which assisted the United Kingdom in its fight against the Ottoman Empire in the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem between 1915 and 1917, during World War I. NILI was centered in Zikhron Ya'akov, with branches ...
(
Hebrew language Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and remained in regular use as a first language unti ...
: ניל"י, an
acronym An acronym is a type of abbreviation consisting of a phrase whose only pronounced elements are the initial letters or initial sounds of words inside that phrase. Acronyms are often spelled with the initial Letter (alphabet), letter of each wor ...
of a phrase נצח ישראל לא ישקר (I
Samuel Samuel is a figure who, in the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, plays a key role in the transition from the biblical judges to the United Kingdom of Israel under Saul, and again in the monarchy's transition from Saul to David. He is venera ...
15:29; transliteration: ''Netzakh Yisrael Lo Yishaker''; literal translation: "The Eternity of Israel does not lie") was a Jewish espionage-network which assisted the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
during
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
(1914–1918) in its fight against the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
, which occupied
Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...
from 1516 to 1918.


Jews in the Imperial German Army

During the First World War, Jews served in the German forces. were killed in action. Thirty thousand were decorated for valor in battle. Among them was the fighter pilot Wilhelm Frankl (who converted to Catholicism in 1917), and the future mayor of Hamburg, Herbert Weichmann.


Jewish Legion (British)

The Jewish Legion was the name for five battalions of Jewish volunteers established as the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
's 38th through 42nd (Service) Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers. The initial unit, known as the Zion Mule Corps, was formed in 1914–1915 during World War I, when
Britain Britain most often refers to: * Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales * The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...
was at war against the
Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks () were a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group in Anatolia. Originally from Central Asia, they migrated to Anatolia in the 13th century and founded the Ottoman Empire, in which they remained socio-politically dominant for the e ...
, as Zionists around the world saw an opportunity to promote the idea of a Jewish National Homeland.


Jewish regiment (Russian Civil War)

The Jewish regiment was an
infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, military service, service, or administrative corps, specialisation. In Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of l ...
formed in February 1919 during the
Russian Civil War The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
1917–1922 as a part of the forces of
ataman Ataman (variants: ''otaman'', ''wataman'', ''vataman''; ; ) was a title of Cossack and haidamak leaders of various kinds. In the Russian Empire, the term was the official title of the supreme military commanders of the Cossack armies. The Ukra ...
Grigory Semyonov which acted in the Transbaikal region. In the early 20th century, Russian Jews were active in a variety of political movements. Many joined
revolutionary movements A revolutionary movement (or revolutionary social movement) is a specific type of social movement dedicated to carrying out a revolution. Criteria Charles Tilly defines it as "a social movement advancing exclusive competing claims to control o ...
such as Esers, Mensheviks and
Bolshevik The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
s. Many Jews served in Makhno's "Black" Army. Others turned to counter-revolution. The regiment was formed by the Chita Jewish community. The staffers and soldiers of the regiment were Jews from various social classes, from craftsmen to traders' sons. Some Jews were reluctant to accept the Soviet regime after being eyewitness to the
Red Terror The Red Terror () was a campaign of political repression and Mass killing, executions in Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Soviet Russia which was carried out by the Bolsheviks, chiefly through the Cheka, the Bolshevik secret police ...
, instability, and upsurge of crime of 1918. Soldiers and staffers celebrated all
Jewish holidays Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or ''Yamim Tovim'' (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew []), are holidays observed by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar.This article focuses on practices of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism. ...
and fought on Shabbat. There were 170 soldiers, 7 sergeants, 4 low rank officers, and 2 captains. Most of the soldiers were from Chita and Nerchinsk. The Jewish regiment took part in many actions against local partisans. The most significant achievement of the regiment was participation in the defeat of the internationalist partisan battalion (150 strong) camped on the northeastern village of Tupik.... The partisans, mostly
Hungarians Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are an Ethnicity, ethnic group native to Hungary (), who share a common Culture of Hungary, culture, Hungarian language, language and History of Hungary, history. They also have a notable presence in former pa ...
, were former
prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of war for a ...
(
POW POW is "prisoner of war", a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. POW or pow may also refer to: Music * P.O.W (Bullet for My Valentine song), "P.O.W" (Bull ...
) who were sent to the Transbaikal region during World War I.


World War II


Jewish Military Union (Polish)

the ''Żydowski Związek Wojskowy'' (''ŻZW''), Polish for Jewish Military Union was an underground resistance organization operating during World War II in the area of the
Warsaw Ghetto The Warsaw Ghetto (, officially , ; ) was the largest of the Nazi ghettos during World War II and the Holocaust. It was established in November 1940 by the Nazi Germany, German authorities within the new General Government territory of Occupat ...
and fighting during the
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany's final effort to transport the remaining ghetto population to the gas chambers of the ...
. It was formed primarily of former officers of the
Polish Army The Land Forces () are the Army, land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 110,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military histor ...
in late 1939, soon after the start of the German occupation of
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
.


Anti-Fascist Military Organisation (Polish)

The ''Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa'' Polish for Anti-Fascist Military Organisation was an underground organization formed in 1942 in the Ghetto in
Białystok Białystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is the List of cities and towns in Poland, tenth-largest city in Poland, second in terms of population density, and thirteenth in area. Biał ...
by former officers of the
Polish Land Forces The Land Forces () are the land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 110,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military history str ...
. It took part in the Białystok Ghetto Uprising.


Jewish Combat Organization (Polish)

The ''Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa'' (''ŻOB''), Polish for the Jewish Combat Organization; called in
Yiddish Yiddish, historically Judeo-German, is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated in 9th-century Central Europe, and provided the nascent Ashkenazi community with a vernacular based on High German fused with ...
יידישע קאמף ארגאניזאציע) – a World War II
resistance movement A resistance movement is an organized group of people that tries to resist or try to overthrow a government or an occupying power, causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such a movement may seek to achieve its goals through ei ...
, which was instrumental in engineering the
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany's final effort to transport the remaining ghetto population to the gas chambers of the ...
(although the ŻZW Jewish resistance organization claimed otherwise). The organization also took part in other resistance activities.


Jewish Brigade (British)

The Jewish Infantry Brigade Group was a military formation of the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
that served in Europe during the Second World War. Although the brigade was formed in 1944, some of its experienced personnel had been employed against the
Axis powers The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...
in
Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
, the Middle East and East Africa. More than Palestinian Jews volunteered to serve in the
British Armed Forces The British Armed Forces are the unified military, military forces responsible for the defence of the United Kingdom, its British Overseas Territories, Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies. They also promote the UK's wider interests ...
, 734 of whom died during the war.


Special Interrogation Group (British)

The Special Interrogation Group (SIG) (some sources interpret this
acronym An acronym is a type of abbreviation consisting of a phrase whose only pronounced elements are the initial letters or initial sounds of words inside that phrase. Acronyms are often spelled with the initial Letter (alphabet), letter of each wor ...
as ''Special Identification Group'' or ''Special Intelligence Group'') was a
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
unit organized from German-speaking Jewish volunteers from the British Mandate of Palestine. The SIG performed
commando A commando is a combatant, or operative of an elite light infantry or special operations force, specially trained for carrying out raids and operating in small teams behind enemy lines. Originally, "a commando" was a type of combat unit, as oppo ...
and
sabotage Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening a polity, government, effort, or organization through subversion, obstruction, demoralization (warfare), demoralization, destabilization, divide and rule, division, social disruption, disrupti ...
operations against the
Nazis Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right politics, far-right Totalitarianism, totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During H ...
behind front lines in the
Western Desert Campaign The Western Desert campaign (Desert War) took place in the Sahara Desert, deserts of Egypt and Libya and was the main Theater (warfare), theatre in the North African campaign of the Second World War. Military operations began in June 1940 with ...
during World War II.


Jews in the USSR

During the Great Patriotic War June 1941 – May 1945 Jews of the USSR Served in the Red Army and the Red Navy. Examples: *General Lev Dovator killed in action 19 December 1941 *General Ivan Chernyakhovsky killed in action 19 February 1945 *Commander Israel Fisanovich killed 27 July 1944 *Sergeant Idel Y. Hait-a submachine gunner killed in battle of Pavlov's House during the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943. *David Dragunsky, commander of the 55th Guards Tank Brigade of the 3rd Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union), 3rd Guards Tank Army *Yakov Kreizer, commander of the 51st Army (Russia), 51st Army *Semyon Krivoshein, commander of the 8th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union), 8th Guards Mechanized Corps *Ida Segal, paratrooper and medic *Lev Skvirsky, commander of the 26th Army (Soviet Union), 26th Army *Ilya Ehrenburg war reporter with the Red Army *Vasily Grossman-war reporter with the Red Army


Palestine Yishuv


The Jewish Resistance Movement

The Jewish Resistance Movement (, ''Tnu'at HaMeri HaIvri'', literally ''Hebrew Rebellion Movement'') was an umbrella group for militant Jewish underground movements in the British Mandate of Palestine. The group existed between the years 1945 and 1946, and coordinated armed attacks against the British military. The group was founded after World War II, disappointed in United Kingdom, British policies towards the movement.


Haganah

The Haganah (
Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...
: "The Defense", ההגנה) was a Jewish paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine from 1920 to 1948. The predecessor of Haganah was Ha-Shomer (השומר, The Guild of Watchman) established in 1909 (formed out of Bar-Giora (organization), Bar-Giora which started two years before). It was a small group of Immigration to Palestine and Israel, Jewish immigrants who guarded settlements for an annual fee. At no time did the group have more than 100 members. After the 1920 1920 Palestine riots, Arab riots and 1921 Jaffa riots, the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British (whom the League of Nations had given a mandate over Palestine in 1920 for the purpose of establishing a Jewish national home) had no desire to confront local Arab gangs over their attacks on Palestinian Jews. Realizing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, the Jewish leadership created the Haganah to protect their farms and Kibbutzim. In addition to guarding Jewish communities, the role of the Haganah was to warn the residents of and repel attacks by Palestinian Arabs. In the period between 1920 and 1929, the Haganah lacked a strong central authority or coordination. Haganah "units" were very localized and poorly armed: they consisted mainly of Jewish farmers who took turns guarding their farms or their kibbutzim. Following the Arab 1929 Palestine riots, massacres of 1929, the Haganah's role changed dramatically. It became a much larger organization encompassing nearly all the youth and adults in the Jewish settlements, as well as thousands of members from the cities. It also acquired foreign arms and began to develop workshops to create hand grenades and simple military equipment, transforming from an untrained militia to a capable underground army.


Palmach

The Palmach (
Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...
: פלמ"ח, an acronym for ''Plugot Mahatz'' (Hebrew: פלוגות מחץ), ''Strike Companies'') was the regular fighting force of the Haganah, the unofficial army of the Yishuv (Jewish community) during the British Mandate of Palestine. It was established on May 15, 1941, and by the war of 1948 had grown to three fighting brigades and auxiliary aerial, naval and intelligence units. Being a Palmachnik (Palmach member) was considered not only as performing military duties, but also as a way of life. Significant leaders of the Palmach include Moshe Dayan, Yitzhak Sadeh, Yigal Allon and future prime minister Yitzhak Rabin. The Palmach contributed significantly to Israeli culture and ethos, well beyond its undoubtedly military contribution. Its members formed the backbone of the Israel Defense Forces high command for many years, and were prominent in Israeli politics, literature and culture. The Palmach was established by the British military and Haganah on May 15, 1941, to help the British protect Palestine from the Nazism, Nazi German threat. They were also to assist Allies of World War II, Allied forces with the planned invasion of Syria and Lebanon, then held by Vichy French forces. British experts trained the Palmach special soldiers and equipped them with small arms and explosives. However, after the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1943, the British ordered the dismantling of Palmach. Instead the whole organisation went underground.


Irgun

Irgun (; shorthand for ''Ha'Irgun Ha'Tsvai Ha'Leumi B'Eretz Yisrael'', , "National Military Organization in the Land of Israel") was a clandestine Zionism, Zionist group that operated in Mandatory Palestine, Palestine from 1931 to 1948, as a militant offshoot of the earlier and larger Haganah (Hebrew: "The Defense", ההגנה) Jewish paramilitary organization. In Israel, Irgun is commonly referred to as Etzel (), an acronym of the Hebrew initials. For secrecy reasons, people often referred to the Irgun, in the time in which it operated, as Haganah Bet (Hebrew: literally "Defense 'B' " or "Second Defense" ), Haganah Ha'leumit () or Ha'ma'amad (). The group made attacks against Arab and Palestinian groups a central part of their initial efforts. It was armed expression of the nascent ideology of Revisionist Zionism, expressed by Ze'ev Jabotinsky as that "every Jew had the right to enter Mandatory Palestine, Palestine; only active retaliation would deter the Arabs and the United Kingdom, British; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state". The organization was a political predecessor movement to Israel's right-wing ''Herut'' (or "Freedom") party, which led to today's Likud party. The most well-known attack by Irgun was the King David Hotel Bombing, bombing of King David Hotel in Jerusalem on 22 July 1946. British authorities condemned Irgun as terrorists already in the 1930s.


Lehi

Lehi (group), Lehi (, an acronym for ''Lohamei Herut Israel'', "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel", לח"י – לוחמי חירות ישראל), also known as the "Stern Group" or "Stern Gang", was an armed Resistance movement, underground Zionist faction in Mandatory Palestine that had as its goal the eviction of the United Kingdom, British from Palestine to allow unrestricted aliyah, immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state. The name of the group became "Lehi" only after the death of its founder, Avraham Stern.


Israel


Israeli Security Forces

Israeli Security Forces is used to describe a group of organizations which are charged with the preservation of Israel's territory and civilian public. The organizations are independent but cooperate with each other, some are volunteer, some are professional, and others are both. The list includes military institutions, government agencies, law enforcement organizations, and first aid organizations: *Israel Police **Israel Border Police **Yamam **Civil Guard (Israel) *Israeli Intelligence Community **Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel), Aman **Mossad **Shin Bet, Shabak


Israel Defense Forces

The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) ( ', "Defense Military of Israel", commonly known in Israel by the Hebrew Acronym and initialism, acronym צה"ל, pronounced ''Tzahal''), is the name of Israel's military forces, comprising the: *GOC Army Headquarters, Israeli Army *Israeli Air Force *Israeli Sea Corps


See also

*Judaism and warfare


References


External links


History of the Jewish Army
Jewish Encyclopedia.
Jewish Concepts of War
Jewish Encyclopedia.
National Museum of American Jewish Military History

President Ronald Reagan, reads the first-hand report of Jewish Chaplain, Arnold E. Resnicoff, from the October 1983 Beirut barracks bombing: text version
[//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Reagan_Speech_Beirut_Bombing.ogv Speech (video version)]. {{DEFAULTSORT:Jewish Military History Jewish military history, Articles containing video clips