''Archidendron pauciflorum'', commonly known as djenkol, jengkol or jering, is a species of flowering tree in the

pea Pea (''pisum'' in Latin) is a pulse or fodder crop, but the word often refers to the seed or sometimes the pod of this flowering plant species. Peas are eaten as a vegetable. Carl Linnaeus gave the species the scientific name ''Pisum sativum' ...

family,

Fabaceae Fabaceae () or Leguminosae,International Code of Nomen ...

. It is native to

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

, where the seeds are also a popular dish.Lim, T. K. "Archidendron jiringa." Edible Medicinal And Non-Medicinal Plants. Springer Netherlands, 2012. 544-548. They are mainly consumed in

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...

Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...

Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...

, and

Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...

, prepared by frying, boiling, or roasting, and eaten raw.Larson, JAMES L., and RICHARD F. Clark. "Plant toxins in the tropics." Tropical Infectious Diseases (Second Edition)(2006): 102-19. The

beans A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are tradition ...

are mildly toxic due to the presence of djenkolic acid, an amino acid that causes djenkolism (''djenkol'' bean poisoning). The beans and leaves of the ''djenkol'' tree are traditionally used for medicinal purposes, such as purifying the blood.Ong, H. C., and J. Norzalina. "Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia." Fitoterapia 70.1 (1999): 10-14. To date, ''djenkol'' is traded on local markets only.Wiriadinata, H. (1993) Archidendron jiringa (Jack) Nielsen. In: Siemonsma JB, Piluek K (eds.) Plant resources of South-East Asia No 8: Vegetables. Prosea, Bogor, p. 89–90

Vernacular names

Common English names are blackbead, dog fruit, ''jengkol'' tree, ''luk nieng'' tree and ''ngapi'' nut. As this plant grows in different countries in Southeast Asia, it has a variety of vernacular names. The common names in Indonesia is ''jengkol'', ''jinkol'', ''jarung'' (Sumatra) or ''jering'' (Java). It is called ''krakos'' in Cambodia, ''jering'' in Malaysia, and Thailand. Other vernacular names include ''luk nieng'', ''cha niang'', ''khang daeng'' and ''pha niang''. In Myanmar it is called ''da-nyin-thee'' or ''da-nyin-pen''.

Description

''Archidendron pauciflorum'' is a

legume Legumes are plants in the pea family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consum ...

tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, e.g., including only woody plants with secondary growth, only ...

with a size of 18–25 m, has a spreading crown and

bipinnate The following terms are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (that is, the leaf blade or 'lamina' is undivided) or compound (that is, the leaf blade is divided into two or more leaflets ...

leaves (up to 25 cm) and greyish smooth bark. The young leaves have a wine-red colour and are edible. The flowering time of the tree is between September and January. The white calyx cup-shaped flowers are bisexual and have various yellowish-white

stamen The stamen (: stamina or stamens) is a part consisting of the male reproductive organs of a flower. Collectively, the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament ...

s. The

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...

(

) of the tree is a woody, glabrous, deep purple pod. Each Pod contains around three to nine round-shaped

seed In botany, a seed is a plant structure containing an embryo and stored nutrients in a protective coat called a ''testa''. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be Sowing, sown, which may include seed and husk or tuber. Seeds ...

s. The pods are formed falcate or twisted in a wide spiral. The

seed coat In botany, a seed is a plant structure containing an embryo and stored nutrients in a protective coat called a ''testa''. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be sown, which may include seed and husk or tuber. Seeds are the ...

of a young seed shows a yellow-green colour and turns dark brown during ripening. Then the ripe fruit dehisces along the

ventral Standard anatomical terms of location are used to describe unambiguously the anatomy of humans and other animals. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position prov ...

suture.

Habitat and ecology

The tree is indigenous to

primary Primary or primaries may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Music Groups and labels * Primary (band), from Australia * Primary (musician), hip hop musician and record producer from South Korea * Primary Music, Israeli record label Work ...

and

secondary forest A secondary forest (or second-growth forest) is a forest or woodland area which has regenerated through largely natural processes after human-caused Disturbance (ecology), disturbances, such as Logging, timber harvest or agriculture clearing, or ...

s in humid, mountainous, and undulating areas as well as on river banks from sea level up to 1600 m elevation in Southeast Asian countries such as

Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...

(

Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...

Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...

Kalimantan Kalimantan (; ) is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It constitutes 73% of the island's area, and consists of the provinces of Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan. The non-Ind ...

Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...

, and

Southern Thailand Southern Thailand (formerly Southern Siam and Tambralinga) is the southernmost cultural region of Thailand, separated from Central Thailand by the Kra Isthmus. Geography Southern Thailand is on the Malay Peninsula, with an area of around , bo ...

. Djenkol trees grow best in pervious sandy or lateritic

soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, water, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms. Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from ''soil'' by re ...

s and they need a high rainfall guarantee. Burmese_Season_Fruit

Toxicity

The Djenkol fruit contains djenkolic acid. Eating the djenkol fruit is linked to cases of

hematuria Hematuria or haematuria is defined as the presence of blood or red blood cells in the urine. "Gross hematuria" occurs when urine appears red, brown, or tea-colored due to the presence of blood. Hematuria may also be subtle and only detectable with ...

. In a study of school children aged 7-11 in Hat-Yai, Thailand who had hematuria, the children were almost four times as likely to have a history of eating djenkol beans. In the cases of eating djenkol, increasing consumption, time since last consumption, or type of preparation (even after adjustment for sex and age) did not change the risk of having hematuria. In that same study, the conclusion was derived that eating djenkol beans may be defined as one of the probable causes of hematuria. In another report from Indonesia, djenkol consumption can cause hypersaturation of djenkolic acid crystals within the urinary system. That leads to obstructive

nephropathy Kidney disease, or renal disease, technically referred to as nephropathy, is damage to or disease of a kidney In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organ (anatomy), organs that are a multilobar, multipap ...

with sludge,

stones In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...

, or possible spasms. In this report, 96 cases of djenkolism were identified. Recovery for the majority of patients included using hydration, bicarbonate therapy, and pain medication for treatment. Three patients required surgery. Another patient had obstructing djenkolic acid stones and required urethral stinting. Out of the 96 reported cases, four patients died with the final diagnosis as acute

kidney failure Kidney failure, also known as renal failure or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), is a medical condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately filter waste products from the blood, functioning at less than 15% of normal levels. Kidney fa ...

. In a different study of Australian acacia seeds ('' Acacia colei, Acacia elecantha, Acacia tumida'', and ''

Acacia saligna ''Acacia saligna'', commonly known by various names including coojong, golden wreath wattle, willow wattle, orange wattle, blue-leafed wattle, Western Australian golden wattle, and, in Africa, Port Jackson willow, is a small tree in the family ...

''), the study focused on processing methods to reduce djenkolic acid in the seeds. The study tested the levels of djenkolic acid in the seeds of each species and reported the levels to be similar to the djenkol bean. The conclusion of that study surmised that djenkolic acid levels can be reduced by over 90% through dry roasting at 180°C. The new lower levels of djenkolic acid were safe for human consumption. However, in the Hat-Yai, Thailand study, different types of preparation did not change the risk of having hematuria.

Uses

Culinary

Nutritional value

The beans of the Djenkol tree have a crude

carbohydrate A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. The typical hydrogen-to-oxygen atomic ratio is 2:1, analogous to that of water, and is represented by the empirical formula (where ''m'' and ''n'' ...

content of about 26% which is relatively low compared to other common

s, such as

cowpea The cowpea (''Vigna unguiculata'') is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus '' Vigna''. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inpu ...

kidney bean The kidney bean is a variety of the common bean (''Phaseolus vulgaris'') named for its resemblance to a human kidney. Classification There are different classifications of kidney beans, such as: *Red kidney bean (also known as common kidney ...

, and

which all contain about 60 - 70%. The crude

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...

content instead is about 14.2%.Sridaran, Ashuwini, Alias A. Karim, and Rajeev Bhat. "Pithecellobium jiringa legume flour for potential food applications: Studies on their physico-chemical and functional properties." Food Chemistry 130.3 (2012): 528-535. This is higher than that of common

cereals A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize (Corn). Edible grains from other plant families, suc ...

, such as

wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...

(13%),

rye Rye (''Secale cereale'') is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than o ...

(11%), or

rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...

(7%). The presence of adequate protein and low-fat contents might be perceived as desirable by consumers. When processed to flour, high

moisture Moisture is the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Moisture is defined as water in the adsorbed or absorbed phase. Small amounts of water may be found, for example, in the air (humidity), in foods, and in some comme ...

content (about 59%) suggests that this seed needs to be further processed to improve its shelf life and overall quality.

Ways of preparation

Djenkol beans are 3.0 to 3.5 cm in diameter and 1.5 to 2.0 cm thick and have a reddish-brown color. These beans are prepared by

frying Frying is the cooking of food in cooking oil, oil or another fat. Similar to sautéing, pan-fried foods are generally turned over once or twice during cooking to make sure that the food is evenly cooked, using tongs or a spatula, whilst sautéed ...

, boiling, or

roasting Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelizat ...

and are also eaten raw. They are mainly consumed in

, and

. The seeds of djenkol are mainly used to add flavour to food, although the crushed seeds give off a mild

sulfur Sulfur ( American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphur ( Commonwealth spelling) is a chemical element; it has symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms ...

ous odorBarceloux, Donald G. "Djenkol Bean rchidendron jiringa (Jack) IC Nielsen. ''Disease-a-Month'' 55.6 (2009): 361–364. which is perceived as rather offensive by some people.Siemonsma, J. S., and Kasem Piluek. Vegetables. Pudoc, 1993. Young seeds are often eaten raw as so-called ulam.Siew, Yin-Yin, et al. "Ethnobotanical survey of usage of fresh medicinal plants in Singapore". ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 155.3 (2014): 1450–1466. Mature seeds are prepared in different ways: * boiled thoroughly until the bad smell has disappeared, then consumed with salt and grated coconut. * steeped in salted water for some hours, then fried in oil. This also removes most of the offensive smell. * The seeds can be buried for about 14 days until they germinate. Then they are dug up and eaten after the sprout has been removed. This way of preparation is said to minimize the danger of intoxication by jengkolic acid.

Medical

Folk medicine

Different parts of the djenkol tree are applied in traditional medicine in

. The raw seeds are thought to purify the blood or cure

dysentery Dysentery ( , ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications may include dehyd ...

. Compresses with young leaves are used for skin problems, and burnt old leaves are believed to relieve itchy feelings. The powder of burnt young leaves is applied to cuts and wounds.Muslim, Nahdzatul, and Amin Malik Shah Abdul Majid. "Pithecellobium Jiringa: A Traditional Medicinal Herb." (2010).

Other uses

''Archidendron pauciflorum'' can also be used for

dyeing Dyeing is the application of dyes or pigments on textile materials such as fibers, yarns, and fabrics with the goal of achieving color with desired color fastness. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular ...

. The pods of the seeds dye silk purple and the bark of the tree dyes black. The shell is also being used for hair washing, timber as firewood, and for building (e.g. coffins)''.'' Due to the content of djenkolic acids in the seeds, the raw seed is also being applied to the production of organic

pesticide Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all p ...

s in combination with other plants to kill and prevent the growth of pests.

Cultivation

Forms of cultivation

Djenkol trees have often been spared when

or secondary

rainforests Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree Canopy (biology), canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropi ...

have been cut down. Otherwise planting distances are 10–15 m. The plant favours well-drained sandy, lateritic or sandy clay

. is propagated by Seed. Methods for clonal distribution have not yet been found. In nature, Squirrels ''( Callosciurus notatus)'' eat the seeds and facilitate their distribution.

Harvest and post-harvest treatment

A tree produces between 1000 and 4000 seeds per year.Charungchitrak, Sarinya, et al. "Antifungal and antibacterial activities of lectin from the seeds of Archidendron jiringa Nielsen". ''Food Chemistry'' 126.3 (2011): 1025–1032. The main harvesting time in

Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...

is around July to August and the aftercrop in December to February. Usually, Djenkol is sold in the markets by several seeds. For transport, seeds, in particular young ones, should not be removed from the pods to avoid

desiccation Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. A desiccant is a hygroscopic (attracts and holds water) substance that induces or sustains such a state in its local vicinity in a moderately sealed container. The ...

. One way to store the seeds is by processing them into chips ( emping). Another possibility however could be its procession to

flour Flour is a powder made by Mill (grinding), grinding raw grains, List of root vegetables, roots, beans, Nut (fruit), nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredie ...

. To date, due to the high moisture content, this is hardly done.

Pests and diseases

''Archidendron pauciflorum'' has several pests in common with other leguminous trees and

shrub A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees by their multiple ...

s such as the pod-borers '' Mussidia pectinicornella'' and '' Cryptophlebia ombrodelta'' or the

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder ...

s of the leaf-feeder ''

Eurema blanda ''Eurema blanda'', the three-spot grass yellow, is a small butterfly of the Family (biology), family Pieridae which is found in Sri Lanka, India and southeast Asia. Description Life Cycle Egg Pale yellowish oval-shaped eggs are laid und ...

'', one of the most common butterflies in Java.

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q3503085 pauciflorum Edible legumes Medicinal plants of Asia Flora of the Lesser Sunda Islands Flora of the Philippines Flora of Sulawesi Plant dyes Plants described in 1844 Taxa named by George Bentham