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Jean-Pierre Aulneau de la Touche (21 April 1705
Moutiers-sur-le-Lay Moutiers-sur-le-Lay (, literally ''Moutiers on the Lay'') is a commune in the Vendée department in the Pays de la Loire region in western France. Geography The village lies on the left bank of the river Lay, which flows southwestward throu ...
, La Vendée,
Kingdom of France The Kingdom of France is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the Middle Ages, medieval and Early modern France, early modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from th ...
– 8 June 1736 Massacre Island, Lake of the Woods,
New France New France (, ) was the territory colonized by Kingdom of France, France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Kingdom of Great Br ...
, now
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,
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) was a
Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...
priest from La Vendée and a pioneering
linguist Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...
of the Assiniboine and
Cree language Cree ( ; also known as Cree–Montagnais language, Montagnais–Naskapi language, Naskapi) is a dialect continuum of Algonquian languages spoken by approximately 86,475 people across Canada in 2021, from the Northwest Territories to Alberta to ...
s. Shortly after his arrival in
New France New France (, ) was the territory colonized by Kingdom of France, France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Kingdom of Great Br ...
following an 80-day voyage from
La Rochelle La Rochelle (, , ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''La Rochéle'') is a city on the west coast of France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime Departments of France, department. Wi ...
and his subsequent ordination to the
Roman Catholic priest The priesthood is the office of the ministers of religion, who have been commissioned ("ordained") with the holy orders of the Catholic Church. Technically, bishops are a priestly order as well; however, in common English usage ''priest'' re ...
hood, Fr. Aulneau was assigned as a
military chaplain A military chaplain ministers to military personnel and, in most cases, their families and civilians working for the military. In some cases, they will also work with local civilians within a military area of operations. Although the term ''cha ...
to the legendary Voyageur explorer Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye at Fort St. Charles, on the Northwest Angle of what is now
Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
. Only two years after his arrival in
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...
, Fr. Aulneau insisted on traveling to Fort Michilimackinac, located at what is now Mackinaw City in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, with a pre-winter resupply mission led by the commander's son, Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye. Fr. Aulneau had hopes of a last visit to the Sacrament of Confession at Fort Michilimackinac, before accompanying a years-long westward expedition in search of both the Mandan people and an overland route to the
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. Instead, he and all others travelling with him were slaughtered by a war party of the Dakota people at what is still known as Massacre Island on Lake of the Woods. His remains were recovered during an excavation of the ruins of Fort St Charles in 1908 and, in 1961, Father Aulneau was dubbed "
Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
's Forgotten
Martyr A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...
" by Fr. Emmett A. Shanahan.


Early life

Jean-Pierre Aulneau was born into the French nobility at the ancestral chateau belonging to his family near
Moutiers-sur-le-Lay Moutiers-sur-le-Lay (, literally ''Moutiers on the Lay'') is a commune in the Vendée department in the Pays de la Loire region in western France. Geography The village lies on the left bank of the river Lay, which flows southwestward throu ...
, La Vendée,
Kingdom of France The Kingdom of France is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the Middle Ages, medieval and Early modern France, early modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from th ...
. His father was hereditary Seigneur, or
Lord of the Manor Lord of the manor is a title that, in Anglo-Saxon England and Norman England, referred to the landholder of a historical rural estate. The titles date to the English Feudalism, feudal (specifically English feudal barony, baronial) system. The ...
, of La Touche. Jean Pierre studied at the Diocesan
minor seminary A minor seminary or high school seminary is a secondary day or boarding school created for the specific purpose of enrolling teenage boys who have expressed interest in becoming Priesthood (Catholic Church), Catholic priests. They are generally ...
of Luçon prior to entering the
Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
novitiate at Pau in 1720. He spent a number of years as an instructor in
La Rochelle La Rochelle (, , ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''La Rochéle'') is a city on the west coast of France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime Departments of France, department. Wi ...
and
Poitiers Poitiers is a city on the river Clain in west-central France. It is a commune in France, commune, the capital of the Vienne (department), Vienne department and the historical center of Poitou, Poitou Province. In 2021, it had a population of 9 ...
. Prior to his
ordination Ordination is the process by which individuals are Consecration in Christianity, consecrated, that is, set apart and elevated from the laity class to the clergy, who are thus then authorized (usually by the religious denomination, denominationa ...
to the priesthood, he sailed for Canada
New France New France (, ) was the territory colonized by Kingdom of France, France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Kingdom of Great Br ...
in 1734. His crossing on ''Le Ruby'' was stormy and, as was typical, the ship's passengers and crew shared diseases in the close quarters. A group of smugglers were also on board, and were being transported as prisoners to New France. According to a letter by his fellow passenger Fr. Luc-François Nau, "These wretched beings would have caused the heart of a Turk to melt with pity. They were half naked and covered with sores; some were eaten alive by worms. We clubbed together and made a collection to buy them shirts from the sailors who had them to spare. All we could do did not prevent the outbreak among them of a kind of pest, which spread throughout the ship, attacking all indiscriminately, and which carried off twenty of our men at a stroke... This sickness afforded a fine field for our zeal. Father Aulneau distinguished himself by his assiduity in serving the sick."Edited by Rev. Arthur E. Jones, S.J. (1893), ''Rare or Unpublished Documents II: The Aulneau Collection: 1734-1745'', Archives of St. Mary's College, Montreal. Page 23. Under orders from the General Superior of the Jesuits in New France, Fr. Pierre de Lauzon, Fr. Aulneau left ''Le Ruby'' fifteen leagues from
Quebec City Quebec City is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Quebec. As of July 2021, the city had a population of 549,459, and the Census Metropolitan Area (including surrounding communities) had a populati ...
in
New France New France (, ) was the territory colonized by Kingdom of France, France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Kingdom of Great Br ...
, and completed his journey partly in a launch and partly in a birch-bark
canoe A canoe is a lightweight, narrow watercraft, water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using paddles. In British English, the term ' ...
. ''Le Ruby'' made the same port after eighty days at sea and one of the longest voyages from France to the
New World The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes Oceania."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: ...
then on record, on 12 August 1734. Father Nau wrote of Father Aunleau, however, "God preserved him in health during the passage across, for the good of the ship, but scarcely had he set foot on shore, when in turn he was stricken down and brought by two different attacks to death's door. No one could tell how he had been sick." After recovering his health, he lodged at the Jesuit College in Quebec, preparing for his final examination, which he passed during
Lent Lent (, 'Fortieth') is the solemn Christianity, Christian religious moveable feast#Lent, observance in the liturgical year in preparation for Easter. It echoes the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring Temptation of Christ, t ...
, and was ordained to the priesthood in April 1735.


Black robe in the Northwest

After receiving an assignment as chaplain, the missionary (whom the Indians called the "Black Robes") set out for Fort St. Charles in June 1735. His letters to his mother in France reveal that he was afraid of being assigned so far away from his confessor and the support of the church. He was to join the local Assiniboine and travel with them to the Mandan. He sailed through the
Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes spanning the Canada–United States border. The five lakes are Lake Superior, Superior, Lake Michigan, Michigan, Lake Huron, H ...
to Fort St. Charles along with Pierre Gaultier de La Vérendrye, commander of the western district. At the time, Aulneau was posted farther west than any other
missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...
in North America. In a letter to fellow priest Fr. Bonin from Fort St. Charles on 30 April 1736, Fr. Aulneau related his efforts, under orders from his superiors, to compile the first ever
dictionary A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged Alphabetical order, alphabetically (or by Semitic root, consonantal root for Semitic languages or radical-and-stroke sorting, radical an ...
of the
Cree language Cree ( ; also known as Cree–Montagnais language, Montagnais–Naskapi language, Naskapi) is a dialect continuum of Algonquian languages spoken by approximately 86,475 people across Canada in 2021, from the Northwest Territories to Alberta to ...
. Fr. Aulneau admitted ruefully, however, "I am not very skilled at it. I have picked up but little during the winter, as all have been on a warlike expedition against the ''Maskoutépoels'', or Prairie Sioux. They have destroyed a few lodges, and some have returned with a few scalps, which are prized as the most precious trophies of their victories. This war was the occasion for us of much suffering during the winter, as we had no other nourishment than tainted pike, boiled or dried over the fire."


Martyrdom

On June 5, 1736, Fr. Aulneau, Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye and 19 French-Canadian '' voyageurs'' were sent from Fort St. Charles to Fort Michilimackinac. They were to pick up supplies for an expedition to the Mandan people in what is today the
North North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography. Etymology T ...
and
South Dakota South Dakota (; Sioux language, Sioux: , ) is a U.S. state, state in the West North Central states, North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Dakota people, Dakota Sioux ...
. In addition, the trip would allow Aulneau a last visit to the Sacrament of Confession before accompanying the explorers on their long journey. His letters to his family showed a young man filled with excitement about his mission to the Mandans, to whom he was eager to preach the Roman Catholic faith. In a 1735 letter to fellow priest Fr. Bonin, Fr. Aulneau had prophetically written, "Doubtless I shall have to undergo many hardships... May God accept the sacrifice I make of my life... I can refuse him nothing... I shall deem myself happy were I deemed worthy of laying down my life for the One from Whom I received it... You may hear the news of my death. I am disposed to offer Him with a light heart the sacrifice of my life."Edited by Rev. Vincent A. Yzermans (1961), ''Catholic Origins of Minnesota'', Published by the Minnesota Fourth Degree Knights of Columbus. Page 37. Within several kilometres of the fort, however, all members of the resupply expedition were killed by " Prairie Sioux" war party consisting of an estimated 90 canoes, which had travelled down the Warroad River, at Massacre Island in Lake of the Woods. The date was 8 June 1736. The Lake of the Woods Massacre is believed to have been masterminded by Chief Sacred Born and a disaffected minority of the Minnesota Dakota people in retaliation for the Sieur de La Vérendrye's practice, like many other Frenchmen during the same era, of supplying
guns A gun is a device that propels a projectile using pressure or explosive force. The projectiles are typically solid, but can also be pressurized liquid (e.g. in water guns or cannons), or gas (e.g. light-gas gun). Solid projectiles may be ...
to Sioux enemies, especially the Assiniboine and the Cree peoples, as part of the North American fur trade. There were very understandable reasons for this, however, as La Vérendrye had no other means to follow the orders of his King without facing financial ruin. At the
Palace of Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...
, King Louis XV and the Comte de Maurepas, the Minister of Marine, were increasingly impatient and rapidly escalating their demands for the Northwest Passage to be located without any further delays, but they invariably refused to cover any of the costs. Meanwhile, La Vérendrye's many creditors in Quebec and Montreal were threatening dire consequences if La Vérendrye did not immediately pay back his existing debts. Furthermore, according to visiting naturalist Pehr Kalm of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...
, La Vérendrye, similarly to the Lewis and Clark Expedition of a later century, was under strict orders from the Governor of New France, the Marquis de Beauharnois, to continue exploring to the westward until reaching the
Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five Borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is ...
. In addition to his trading relationship and occasional military alliance with some Sioux enemies, La Vérendrye is also strongly suspected by some historians of having covertly encouraged the Assiniboine and Cree Iron Confederacy into the
poaching Poaching is the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set against the huntin ...
of North American beaver skins from much further south in Minnesota, especially during the seasonal western migration of the local Dakota people to hunt the
American bison The American bison (''Bison bison''; : ''bison''), commonly known as the American buffalo, or simply buffalo (not to be confused with Bubalina, true buffalo), is a species of bison that is endemic species, endemic (or native) to North America. ...
in the
Great Plains The Great Plains is a broad expanse of plain, flatland in North America. The region stretches east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, and grassland. They are the western part of the Interior Plains, which include th ...
. La Vérendrye, who had then shipped the valuable beaver skins east in order to cover his debts and expenses, later wrote, however, that the loss of his son, his chaplain, and the 19 Voyageurs in what is now called the Lake of the Woods massacre was the greatest grief of his entire life and one from which he never completely healed. When the Cree people reported the massacre to La Verendrye, he wrote in a 17 September 1736 diary entry, "I dispatched the Sergeant with six men to raise the bodies of Reverend Father Aulneau and my son and on the eighteenth I had them buried in the chapel together with the heads of all the Frenchmen killed, they also brought in accordance with my orders."Edited by Rev. Vincent A. Yzermans (1961), ''Catholic Origins of Minnesota'', Published by the Minnesota Fourth Degree Knights of Columbus. Page 33. The bodies of Fr. Aulneau and young La Verendrye were encased in a rough hewn coffin and buried beneath the
altar An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religion, religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, Church (building), churches, and other places of worship. They are use ...
of the fortress chapel. Fr. Aulneau's rosary was laid at his feet. The severed heads of the 19 voyageurs were buried together in a nearby trench. For the time being, the massacre ended plans for an immediate expedition to the Mandan and the other peoples of the
Great Plains The Great Plains is a broad expanse of plain, flatland in North America. The region stretches east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, and grassland. They are the western part of the Interior Plains, which include th ...
. The Assiniboine and Cree Iron Confederacy also assembled at Fort St. Charles and demanded that La Vérendrye lead them immediately in a war party to avenge the murder of his son, who had been adopted into a Cree family. La Vérendrye refused to do this, however, without first asking for and receiving permission from Versailles. The French commander also considered it suicidal to lead a war party so late in the year, as a bountiful wild rice harvest would be desperately needed to survive the coming winter without supplies from Fort Michilimackinac. A trade embargo was instead decreed by the King against the Dakota people, resulting the temporary closure of all fur trading posts. After several years of receiving supplies only from
coureurs des bois A coureur des bois (; ) or coureur de bois (; ) were independent entrepreneurial French Canadians, French Canadian traders who travelled in New France and the interior of North America, usually to trade with Indigenous peoples of the Americas, ...
, who continued trading with the Dakota in defiance of the French Crown, Chief Sacred Born sued for peace. His decision was made following a massive retaliatory raid by the Iron Confederacy against the Prairie Dakota during their annual bison hunting migration. The raid had been led by La Vérendrye, who by now had permission in advance from King Louis XV and his Ministers. Chief Sacred Born's apology was accepted without further incident and the fur trade in Dakota land was resumed. It was not until 1741, however, that another Catholic priest, Fr. Claude-Godefroy Coquart, began his journey west to join La Vérendrye. Fr. Coquart spent some time at Fort St. Charles before moving on to Fort La Reine (presently Portage la Prairie, Manitoba) in 1743. Fr. Coquart is the first recorded
Roman Catholic priest The priesthood is the office of the ministers of religion, who have been commissioned ("ordained") with the holy orders of the Catholic Church. Technically, bishops are a priestly order as well; however, in common English usage ''priest'' re ...
to visit present-day
Manitoba Manitoba is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population ...
and the first to travel both North and West of Lake of the Woods.


Veneration

The Catholic Church considers Aulneau a
martyr A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...
in the effort to convert the Native peoples to Christianity. The letters of Aulneau to his family, which had almost miraculously survived the 1793 Vendée Uprising, were shared with the Jesuit Order by Aulneau descendants in Vendée, France in 1889. They were first published in an English translation in 1893 as ''The Aulneau Collection'' Academics at St. Boniface College in
Winnipeg Winnipeg () is the capital and largest city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Manitoba. It is centred on the confluence of the Red River of the North, Red and Assiniboine River, Assiniboine rivers. , Winnipeg h ...
read ''The Aulneau Collection'', which inspired a series of expeditions, encouraged by Archbishop Adélard Langevin, to rediscover the old sites. Fort St. Charles remained illusive, but, based on the
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
of local First Nations peoples, the Jesuits easily located Massacre Island, which remains, according to Fr. Emmett Shanahan, "an island at which no pagan Indian will as much as look and who, should he have to pass it, will without fail cast upon the waters a handful of
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
to appease the anger of the Manitou." In 1908, a further Jesuit expedition from Saint Boniface College located Fort St. Charles, just inside the territorial waters of the United States. They excavated and examined the remains of the martyred priest and his companions. Fr. Aulneau was identified by the hook from the top of his
cassock The cassock, or soutane, is a Christian clerical clothing, clerical coat used by the clergy and Consecrated life, male religious of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church, in addition to some clergy in ...
and his rosary, which had been laid at his feet. The party transferred all human remains and artifacts found at Fort St. Charles across the Canada–US border to St. Boniface College, where they were tragically lost in the November 1921 fire that destroyed the college. Whatever could be recovered was collected and reburied at the Aulneau-Vérendrye Memorial in the St. Boniface Cathedral Cemetery in Saint-Boniface, Manitoba. To honor its Golden Anniversary in Minnesota, in 1949 the Fourth Degree Knights of Columbus in Minnesota raised money to buy the site of Fort St. Charles and build a replica of the fort and it's Catholic chapel there, which was consecrated by Bishop Francis Joseph Schenk on 5 July 1951. The property was then deeded over to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Crookston,
Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
, and remained, as of 1961, the site of an annual Christian pilgrimage and of a mid-July outdoor
Mass Mass is an Intrinsic and extrinsic properties, intrinsic property of a physical body, body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the physical quantity, quantity of matter in a body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physi ...
in honor of Father Aulneau. A stone statue of Fr. Aulneau, with his hands outstretched as a sign of oblation and self sacrifice, was carved by Anthony Caponi of Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota. As of 1961, the statue was located at the base of the tower of St. Mary, Queen of Martyrs Roman Catholic Church in Warroad, Minnesota.Edited by Rev. Vincent A. Yzermans (1961), ''Catholic Origins of Minnesota'', Published by the Minnesota Fourth Degree Knights of Columbus. Page 29.


See also

* Canadian Martyrs * Charles-Michel Mesaiger


References

*Lund, Duane R. ''Lake of the Woods: Earliest Accounts''. Nordell Graphic Communications, Staples, Minn.1984 *''The Encyclopedia of Canada'', Vol. IV, Toronto: University Associates of Canada, 1948 *''The Aulneau Collection'', Edited by Father Arthur Jones, S.J., Montreal: Saint Mary's College, 1893


Further reading

*"Lettres du père Aulneau," ''APQ Rapport'', 1926–27, 259–330. *Le Jeune, ''Dictionnaire'', I, 98f.; II, 112–16. *Rochemonteix, ''Les Jésuites et la N.-F. au XVIIIe siècle'', I, 212–25. *Paul Desjardins, "Le projet de mission du Père Aulneau chez les Mandanes," ''SCHEC Rapport'', 1948–49, 55–69.


External links


''The Aulneau Collection'', Available for download on "The Internet Archive"
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Aulneau, Jean-Pierre 1705 births 1736 deaths 18th-century French Jesuits 18th-century Roman Catholic martyrs 18th-century venerated Christians American venerated Catholics Burials at Saint Boniface Cathedral Catholic Church and minority language rights Catholic Church in Minnesota French-American culture in Minnesota French missionary linguists French Roman Catholic missionaries Jesuit missionaries in New France Linguists of Algic languages Martyred Roman Catholic priests Native American Christianity Native American history of Minnesota People from Vendée Pre-statehood history of Minnesota Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of Saint Paul and Minneapolis