Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an

Indian religion Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification o ...

whose three main pillars are

nonviolence Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it may refer to a general philosoph ...

(),

asceticism Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing Spirituality, spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world ...

(), and a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality (). Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four , supreme preachers of ''

dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...

''. The first in the current time cycle is

Rishabhadeva Rishabhanatha (Devanagari: ऋषभनाथ), also Rishabhadeva (Devanagari: ऋषभदेव, ), Rishabha (Devanagari: ऋषभ, ) or Ikshvaku (Devanagari: इक्ष्वाकु, ''Ikṣvāku''), is the first (Supreme preacher) ...

, who tradition holds lived millions of years ago; the 23rd is Parshvanatha, traditionally dated to the 9th century BCE; and the 24th is

Mahavira Mahavira (Devanagari: महावीर, ), also known as Vardhamana (Devanagari: वर्धमान, ), was the 24th ''Tirthankara'' (Supreme Preacher and Ford Maker) of Jainism. Although the dates and most historical details of his lif ...

, who lived . Jainism is considered an eternal ''

'' with the guiding every time cycle of the

cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe, the cosmos. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', with the meaning of "a speaking of the wo ...

. Central to understanding

Jain philosophy Jain philosophy or Jaina philosophy refers to the Ancient India, ancient Indian Indian philosophy, philosophical system of the Jainism, Jain religion. It comprises all the Philosophy, philosophical investigations and systems of inquiry that dev ...

is the concept of ''bhedavijñāna'', or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every

soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...

, distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of birth and rebirth. Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of ( self realization), which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards

liberation Liberation or liberate may refer to: Film and television * ''Liberation'' (film series), a 1970–1971 series about the Great Patriotic War * "Liberation" (''The Flash''), a TV episode * "Liberation" (''K-9''), an episode Gaming * '' Liberati ...

. Jain monks take five main vows: (non-violence), (truth), (not stealing), (chastity), and (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly

lacto-vegetarian A lacto-vegetarian (sometimes referred to as a lactarian; from the Latin root lact-, ''milk'') diet abstains from the consumption of meat as well as Egg as food, eggs, while still consuming dairy products such as milk, cheese (without animal renn ...

lifestyle. (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the ''

Namokar Mantra The Ṇamōkāra mantra is the most significant mantra in Jainism, and one of the oldest mantras in continuous practice. This is the first prayer recited by the Jains while meditating. The mantra is also variously referred to as the ''Pancha ...

'' is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions,

Digambara ''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major Jain schools and branches, schools of Jainism, the other being ''Śvetāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic pract ...

s and Śvētāmbaras, which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have

mendicant A mendicant (from , "begging") is one who practices mendicancy, relying chiefly or exclusively on alms to survive. In principle, Mendicant orders, mendicant religious orders own little property, either individually or collectively, and in many i ...

s supported by

layperson Laypeople or laypersons may refer to: * Someone who is not an expert in a particular field of study ** Lay judge *** Lay judges in Japan * Laity, members of a church who are not clergy ** Lay brother ** Lay sister ** Lay preacher ** Lay apostol ...

s ( and ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas, who reside mostly in

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

, where they numbered around 4.5 million at the 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

, and the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include ''

Paryushana Paryushana is an annual holy event in Jainism and is usually celebrated in August, September or October in the Hindi calendar month of Bhadrapad's Shukla Paksha. Jains increase their level of spiritual intensity often using fasting and praye ...

'' and ''Das Lakshana'', '' Ashtanika'', ''

Mahavir Janma Kalyanak Mahavira Janma Kalyanaka is one of the most important religious festivals in Jainism. It celebrates the birth of Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and last Tīrthaṅkara (supreme preacher) of present Avasarpiṇī. On the Gregorian calendar, the ...

'', ''

Akshaya Tritiya Akshaya Tritiya, also known as Akti or Akha Teej, is an annual Jain and Hindu spring festival. It falls on the third ''tithi'' (lunar day) of the bright half (''Shukla Paksha'') of the Hindu month of Vaisakha. This day is auspicious for those ...

'', and ''

Dipawali Diwali (), also called Deepavali (IAST: ''Dīpāvalī'') or Deepawali (IAST: ''Dīpāwalī''), is the Hindu festival of lights, with variations celebrated in other Indian religions such as Jainism and Sikhism. It symbolises the spiritual ...

''.

Beliefs and philosophy

Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of

substance dualism Substance may refer to: * Matter, anything that has mass and takes up space Chemistry * Chemical substance, a material with a definite chemical composition * Drug, a chemical agent affecting an organism Arts, entertainment, and media Music * ' ...

, and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and

interactionism In micro-sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective that sees social behavior as an interactive product of the individual and the situation. In other words, it derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity fo ...

''Dravya'' (Ontological facts)

''Dravya'' means substances or entities in

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

. Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ('' jīva''), non-sentient substance or matter (''

pudgala In Jainism, Pudgala (or ') is one of the six Dravya (Jainism), Dravyas, or aspects of reality that fabricate the world we live in. The six ''dravya''s include the jiva and the fivefold divisions of ajiva (non-living) category: ''dharma'' (motio ...

''), the principle of motion (''

''), the principle of rest (''

adharma Adharma is the Sanskrit antonym of dharma. It means "that which is not in accord with the dharma". Connotations include betrayal, discord, disharmony, unnaturalness, wrongness, evil, immorality, unrighteousness, wickedness, and vice. Descriptio ...

''), space (''

ākāśa Akasha (Sanskrit ' ) means aether in traditional Hindu cosmology. The term has also been adopted in Western occultism and spiritualism in the late 19th century CE. In many modern Indo-Aryan languages and Dravidian languages the corresponding w ...

''), and time (''

kāla Kala (, ) is a Sanskrit term that means 'time' or 'death'. As time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death, and often used as one of the epithets of Yama. In Shaivism, Kala is known as the fiery avatar of Shiva, Bhairava, K ...

''). The last five are united as the ''ajiva'' (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body or thing by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed.

''Tattva'' (Soteriological facts)

''Tattva'' connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven ''tattvas'': the sentient (''

jiva ''Jiva'' (, IAST: ), also referred as ''Jivātman,'' is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to br ...

'' or living), the insentient (''

ajiva ''Ajiva'' (Sanskrit) is anything that has no soul or life, the polar opposite of " jīva" (soul). Because ''ajiva'' has no life, it does not accumulate ''karma'' and cannot die. Examples of ajiva include chairs, computers, paper, plastic, etc. ...

'' or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul (''

Āsrava ''Asrava'' (''āsrava'' "influx") is one of the ''tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It refers to the influence of body and mind causing the soul to generate karma. The karmic process in Jainism is b ...

'', which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ('' Bandha''), the stoppage of karmic particles (''

Saṃvara ''Samvara'' (''saṃvara'') is one of the ''tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It means stoppage—the stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness. The karmic process in J ...

''), the wiping away of past karmic particles ('' Nirjarā''), and the liberation (''

Moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'', and ''mukti'', is a term in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, '' nirvana'', or release. In its soteriological and eschatologic ...

''). Śvētāmbaras add two further ''tattvas'', namely good karma (''Punya'') and bad karma (''Paapa''). The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the ''tattvas''". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach ''moksha'' for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.

''Pramana'' (Epistemological facts)

Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (''

pramana ''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".

''). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (''pratyaksa''), inference (''anumana''), and testimony (''sabda'' or the word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as ''Tattvarthasūtra'', ''Parvacanasara'', ''Nandi'' and ''Anuyogadvarini''. Some Jain texts add analogy (''upamana'') as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to

epistemological theories Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowledg ...

found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, ''jnāna'' (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – ''mati jñāna'' (sensory knowledge), ''śrutu jñāna'' (scriptural knowledge), ''avadhi jñāna'' (

clairvoyance Clairvoyance (; ) is the claimed ability to acquire information that would be considered impossible to get through scientifically proven sensations, thus classified as extrasensory perception, or "sixth sense". Any person who is claimed to h ...

), ''manah prayāya Jñāna'' (

telepathy Telepathy () is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic ...

) and '' kevala jnana'' (

omniscience Omniscience is the property of possessing maximal knowledge. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, it is often attributed to a divine being or an all-knowing spirit, entity or person. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any ...

). According to the Jain text ''Tattvartha sūtra'', the first two are indirect knowledge, and the remaining three are direct knowledge.

Soul and karma

According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever-changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom that does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (''

Guṇa () is a concept in Hinduism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".

Saṃsāra

The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul (''jiva'') is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism, but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through ''Saṃsāra'', going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with adverse karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that ''abhavya'' (incapable) souls can never attain ''

moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'', and ''mukti'', is a term in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, '' nirvana'', or release. In its soteriological and eschatologic ...

'' (liberation). It explains that the ''abhavya'' state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike the

nondualism Nondualism includes a number of philosophical and spiritual traditions that emphasize the absence of fundamental duality or separation in existence. This viewpoint questions the boundaries conventionally imposed between self and other, min ...

of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a ''Siddha'' (liberated soul) has gone beyond ''Saṃsāra'', is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally.

Cosmology

Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal ''lokas'' (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter, and time are considered separate from the soul (''jiva''). Their interaction explains life, living, death, and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (''urdhva loka'', ''madhya loka'', and ''adho loka''). Jainism states that ''Kāla'' (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, ''kālachakra'', rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (''ara''), and in the first eon, the universe generates, and in the next, it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, ''utsarpiṇī'' (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and ''

avasarpiṇī ''Avasarpiṇī'' (), is the descending half of the cosmic time cycle in Jainism and the one in which the world is said to be at present. According to Jain texts the ''Avasarpiṇī'' is marked by a decline in goodness and religion. The ascen ...

'' (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ''ara'' of ''avasarpiṇī'', full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after the sixth ''ara'', the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle.

God

Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created, and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...

, but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die, and reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals, or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls ''with'' a body are called '' Arihants'' (victors) and perfect souls ''without'' a body are called ''

Siddha ''Siddha'' (Sanskrit: '; "perfected one") is a term that is used widely in Indian religions and culture. It means "one who is accomplished." It refers to perfected masters who have achieved a high degree of perfection of the intellect as we ...

s'' (liberated souls). Only a soul with a human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly, and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.

Salvation, liberation

Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: ''Samyak Darśana'' (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (''jīva''); ''Samyak Gyana'' (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the ''tattvas''; and ''Samyak Charitra'' (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add ''samyak tapas'' (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (

). The four jewels are called ''Moksha Marga'' (the path of liberation).

Main principles

Non-violence (''ahimsa'')

The principle of ''

ahimsa (, IAST: , ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. (also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal vi ...

'' (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as ''

Ācārāṅga Sūtra The Ācārāṅga Sūtra, the foremost and oldest Jain text (''First book'' c. 5th–4th century BCE; Second book c. Late 4th–2nd century BCE), is the first of the twelve Angas, part of the agamas which were compiled based on the teachings o ...

'' and ''

Tattvarthasūtra ''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ''Tattvarth-adhigama-sutra'' or ''Moksha-shastra'') is an ancient Jain text writte ...

'' state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad

karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...

which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the ''Ahiṃsā'' doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.

Many-sided reality (''anekāntavāda'')

Medieval Jain temple Anekantavada doctrine artwork

The second main principle of Jainism is ''anekāntavāda'', from ''anekānta'' ("many-sidedness," etymologically "

non Non, non or NON can refer to: * ''Non'', a negatory word in French, Italian and Latin People *Non (given name) *Non Boonjumnong (born 1982), Thai amateur boxer * Rena Nōnen (born 1993), Japanese actress who uses the stage name "Non" since July ...

-oneness" or "not being one") and ''vada'' ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are ''Naya'', "partial expression of the truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are ''syāt'', or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt''). These texts identify ''anekāntavāda'' as a key difference from the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...

's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as ''

'' (soul) and ''

'' (matter) within a dualistic ''anekāntavāda'' framework. According to

Paul Dundas Paul Dundas (23 May 1952 – 5 April 2023) was a Scottish Indologist, an honorary fellow in Sanskrit language and Head of Asian studies at the University of Edinburgh. His teachings and research focused extensively on understanding Jainism, Bu ...

, in contemporary times the ''anekāntavāda'' doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other thical, religiouspositions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.

Non-attachment (''aparigraha'')

The third main principle in Jainism is ''aparigraha'' which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, ''aparigraha'' applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.

Jain ethics and five vows

Nishidhi stone with 14th century Old Kannada inscription from Tavanandi forest

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called ''anuvratas'' (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and ''mahavratas'' (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a ''

guru Guru ( ; International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''guru'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian religions, Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: tr ...

'' (teacher, counsellor), ''deva'' (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: # ''

Ahiṃsā (, IAST: , ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. (also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal vi ...

'', "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury": The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals). This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts. # ''

Satya (Sanskrit: ; IAST: ) is a Sanskrit word that can be translated as "truth" or "essence.“ In Indian religions, it refers to a kind of virtue found across them. This virtue most commonly refers to being truthful in one's thoughts, speech and act ...

'', "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth. # ''

Asteya (Sanskrit: , IAST: ) or (Sanskrit: ; IAST: ) is the Sanskrit term for "non-stealing". It is a virtue in Jainism. The practice of demands that one must not steal, nor have the intent to steal, another's property through action, speech, and thou ...

'', "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given. # ''

Brahmacharya ''Brahmacharya'' (; Sanskrit: Devanagari: ब्रह्मचर्य) is the concept within Indian religions that literally means "conduct consistent with Brahman" or "on the path of Brahman". Brahmacharya, a discipline of controlling ...

'', "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner. # ''

Aparigraha Non-possession (, ) is a religious tenet followed in Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions in South Asia. In Jainism, is the virtue of non-possessiveness, non-grasping, or non-greediness. is the opposite of . It means keeping the desire for po ...

'', "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one. Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three ''guņa vratas'' (merit vows) and four ''śikşā vratas''. The ''

Sallekhana (IAST: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually redu ...

'' (or ''Santhara'') vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.

Practices

Asceticism and monasticism

Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching ''siddha'' and ''moksha'' ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like ''Tattvartha Sūtra'' and '' Uttaradhyayana Sūtra'' discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting

mendicants A mendicant (from , "begging") is one who practices mendicancy, relying chiefly or exclusively on alms to survive. In principle, mendicant religious orders own little property, either individually or collectively, and in many instances members ...

, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the ''jiva'' (soul). The ''tirthankaras'' such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, ''sangh'', has a four-fold order consisting of ''sadhu'' (male ascetics, ''muni''), ''sadhvi'' (female ascetics, ''aryika''), ''

śrāvaka Śrāvaka (Sanskrit) or Sāvaka (Pali) means "hearer" or, more generally, "disciple". This term is used in Buddhism and Jainism. In Jainism, a śrāvaka is any lay Jain so the term śrāvaka has been used for the Jain community itself (for exampl ...

'' (laymen), and ''śrāvikā'' (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called ''gacch'' or ''samuday'', in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the ''Dandasan'' – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.

Food and fasting

The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being

vegetarian Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the Eating, consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects as food, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slau ...

. Devout Jains practice

lacto-vegetarianism A lacto-vegetarian (sometimes referred to as a lactarian; from the Latin root lact-, ''milk'') diet abstains from the consumption of meat as well as eggs, while still consuming dairy products such as milk, cheese (without animal rennet i.e., fro ...

, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production.

Veganism Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products and the consumption of animal source foods, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A person who practices veganism is known as a vega ...

is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid

root vegetable Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans or animals as food. In agricultural and culinary terminology, the term applies to true roots, such as taproots and root tubers, as well as non-roots such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and ...

s such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ''ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata''. Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called ''upavasa'', ''tapasya'' or ''vrata'', and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for ''Dasa-laksana-parvan'', eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day ''paryusana'' with ''samvatsari-pratikramana''. The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (''punya''). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.

Meditation

Jainism considers meditation (''dhyana'') a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to

Padmanabh Jaini Padmanabh Shrivarma Jaini (October 23, 1923 – May 25, 2021) was an Indian-American scholar of Jainism and Buddhism, living in Berkeley, California, United States. He was from a Digambar Jain family; however he was equally familiar with bo ...

, ''

Sāmāyika ''Sāmāyika'' is the vow of periodic concentration observed by the Jains. It is one of the essential duties prescribed for both the ''Śrāvaka'' (householders) and ascetics. The preposition ''sam'' means one state of being. To become one is ...

'' is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of ''siksavrata'' (ritual restraint). The goal of ''Sāmāyika'' is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second ''siksavrata''. The ''samayika'' ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as ''Puja'' in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, ''samayika'' connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".

Rituals and worship

Shravanbelgola Gomateshvara feet prayer1

There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual is ''sallekhana'', a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially the '' Jinas''. In Jainism a ''Jina'' as ''deva'' is not an

avatar Avatar (, ; ) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means . It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes u ...

(incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic ''tirthankara'' achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha,

Neminatha Neminātha (Devanagari: नेमिनाथ) (Sanskrit: नेमिनाथः), also known as Nemi and Ariṣṭanemi (Devanagari: अरिष्टनेमि), is the twenty-second tirthankara of Jainism in the present age (). Nemina ...

and

Rishabhanatha Rishabhanatha (Devanagari: ऋषभनाथ), also Rishabhadeva (Devanagari: ऋषभदेव, ), Rishabha (Devanagari: ऋषभ, ) or Ikshvaku (Devanagari: इक्ष्वाकु, ''Ikṣvāku''), is the first (Supreme preacher) ...

. Among the non-''tirthankara'' saints, devotional worship is common for

Bahubali Bahubali (, ) was the son of Rishabhanatha (the first ''tirthankara'' of Jainism) and the brother of the ''Chakravarti (Sanskrit term), chakravartin'' Bharata (Jainism), Bharata. He is a revered figure in Jainism. He is said to have meditated ...

among the Digambaras. The ''

Panch Kalyanaka Panch Kalyanaka (, "Five Auspicious Events") are the five chief auspicious events that occur in the life of tirthankara in Jainism. They are commemorated as part of many Jain rituals and festivals. Kalyanaka These auspicious life events are a ...

'' rituals remember the five life events of the ''tirthankaras'', including the '' Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava'', ''Panch Kalyanaka Puja'' and ''Snatrapuja''. The basic ritual is ''darsana'' (seeing) of ''deva'', which includes Jina, or other yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including

Sarasvati Saraswati (, ), also spelled as Sarasvati, is one of the principal Devi, goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of knowledge, education, learning, arts, speech, poetry, music, purification, language and culture. Together with the godde ...

and

Lakshmi Lakshmi (; , , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, , ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of wealth, fortune, prosperity, beauty, fertility, sovereignty, and abundance. She along with Parvat ...

). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called ''devapuja'', and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the

namaskar ''Namaste'' (, Devanagari: नमस्ते), sometimes called ''namaskār'' and ''namaskāram'', is a customary Hindus, Hindu manner of respectfully greeting and honouring a person or group, used at any time of day. It is used worldwide am ...

, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing ''

abhisheka Abhisheka () is a religious rite or method of prayer in which a devotee pours a liquid offering on an image or murti of a deity. This is common to religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Hinduism An abhiṣeka is conducted by pries ...

'' (ceremonial bath) of the images. Some Jain sects employ a ''pujari'' (also called ''upadhye''), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of

mantra A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...

s and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ('' panca namaskara'') mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the ''Rishi-mandala'' including the ''tirthankaras''. The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.

Festivals

The most important annual Jain festival is called the ''

'' by Svetambaras and '' Dasa lakshana parva'' by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of

Bhadrapada Bhadra or Bhadrapada or Bhādo or Bhadraba ( Bengali: ভাদ্র ''bhādro''; Hindi: भादों ''bhādo''; Sanskrit: भाद्रपद ''bhādrapada''; ''Bhādra''; ''Bhādravo''; ''Bhadraba''; ''Bhadô'') is the sixth month ...

in the

Indian calendar Indian calendar may refer to any of the calendars, used for civil and religious purposes in India and other parts of Southeast Asia: * The Indian national calendar (a variant of the Shalivahana calendar), the calendar officially used by the Governm ...

. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the ''Kalpasūtras'', while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals. The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as '' Samvatsari''. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying "'' Micchami Dukkadam''" or "''Khamat khamna''" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of ''Paryushana'' is "abiding" or "coming together".

celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of

Chaitra Chaitra () is a month of the Hindu calendar. In the standard Hindu calendar and India's national civil calendar, Chaitra is the first month of the year. It is the last month in the Bengali calendar, where it is called Choitro. Chaitra or Cha ...

in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples,

pilgrimages A pilgrimage is a journey to a holy place, which can lead to a personal transformation, after which the pilgrim returns to their daily life. A pilgrim (from the Latin ''peregrinus'') is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) who is o ...

to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in

Bihar Bihar ( ) is a states and union territories of India, state in Eastern India. It is the list of states and union territories of India by population, second largest state by population, the List of states and union territories of India by are ...

, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of ''

''. The Hindu festival of

Diwali Diwali (), also called Deepavali (IAST: ''Dīpāvalī'') or Deepawali (IAST: ''Dīpāwalī''), is the Hindu festival of lights, with variations celebrated in other Indian religions such as Jainism and Sikhism. It symbolises the spiritual v ...

is also celebrated on the same date (''Kartika Amavasya''). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and ''diyas'' (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, ''Nirvan Ladoo'' is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are

and

Raksha Bandhan Raksha Bandhan Quote: m Hindi ''rakśābandhan'' held on the full moon of the month of Savan, when sisters tie a talisman (rakhi q.v.) on the arm of their brothers and receive small gifts of money from them. is a popular and traditionally Hin ...

, similar to those in the Hindu communities.

Traditions and sects

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations,

and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white

saree A sari (also called sharee, saree or sadi)The name of the garment in various regional languages include: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is a drape (cloth) and a women's garment in the Indian subcontinent. It consists of an un-stit ...

s and are referred to as ''

Aryika ''Aryika'', also known as ''Sadhvi'', is a female mendicant ( nun) in Jainism. History In the traditional Digambara tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly throu ...

s''. Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes. According to Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya, a 5th century CE

Śvetāmbara The Śvetāmbara (; also spelled Shwetambara, Shvetambara, Svetambara or Swetambara) is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the Digambara. ''Śvetāmbara'' in Sanskrit means "white-clad", and refers to its ascetics' practi ...

text, they are the original followers which is corroborated by the

pattavali A Pattavali (From Sanskrit patta: seat, avali: chain), Sthaviravali or Theravali, is a record of a spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders. They are thus spiritual genealogies. It is generally presumed that two successive names are teach ...

of the Kalpa Sutra, and that

s arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (in about the 1st century CE or 82 AD) because of an arrogant man named

Sivabhuti Sivabhuti was a Jain monk of the 1st century CE who is regarded as the founder of the Digambara tradition in 82 AD, according to the 5th-century Śvetāmbara text ''Avashyak Bhashya'', authored by Jinabhadra. Very little is known about him, apa ...

who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home. He is accused of starting the Digambara Jain tradition with what Śvetāmbara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by the Śvetāmbara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes. The claim of them being the original followers of Jainism is further corroborated by the naked idols excavated from

Kankali Tila ''Kankali Tila'' (also Kankali mound or Jaini mound) is a mound located at Mathura in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The name of the mound is derived from a modern temple of Hindu goddess Kankali. The famous Jain stupa was excavated here ...

, but consecrated by Śvetāmbara ascetics whose names match exactly with those mentioned in the pattavali of the Kalpa Sutra. According to Jinabhadra Gaṇi,

was the eighth heretic who is regarded as the founder of the Digambara sect. Another

work, ''Nihnavavad,'' also confirms this account. A condition was enforced that since women possess clothes in the

tradition, they are not fit to attain

or liberation. This aligns with the current-day

belief regarding women attaining salvation. Several well-known scholars such as R. G. Bhandarkar and Professor J. F. Fleet of

Cambridge University The University of Cambridge is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, wo ...

agree with the Śvetāmbara account more than later Digambara accounts. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that ''Acharya'' Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples.

Sthulabhadra Sthulabhadra (297-198 BCE) was a Jain monk who lived during the 3rd or 4th century BC. He was a disciple of Bhadrabahu and Sambhutavijaya. His father was Sakatala, a minister in Nanda kingdom before the arrival of Chandragupta Maurya. When h ...

, a pupil of ''Acharya'' Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of ''Acharya'' Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of ''aparigraha'' which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit ''Suttapahuda'' of Kundakunda. The earliest mention and description of the schism is in the 5th century CE Śvetāmbara texts. Digambara texts do not mention the schism at least until the 10th century CE. Even after a much later mention of the schism, several important Digambara texts differ greatly on the narrative about the Śvetāmbara sect's emergence. Bhadrabāhucaritra by Digambara monk Ratnanandi states that the Śvetāmbara sect emerged after the famine in Magadha. While this is one account of the schism as per the Digambara scriptures, another alternate story is described in Darśanasār, also a Digambara text authored by Digambara monk Devasena states that the Śvetāmbara sect emerged in

Vallabhi Vallabhi (or Valabhi or Valabhipur) is an ancient city located in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat, near Bhavnagar in western India. It is also known as Vallabhipura and was the capital of the Kingdom of Valabhi, an early medieval state rule ...

Saurashtra Saurashtra, Sourashtra, or variants may refer to: ** Kathiawar, also called Saurashtra Peninsula, a peninsula in western India ** Saurashtra (state), alias United State of Kathiawar, a former Indian state, merged into Bombay State and since its d ...

136 years after the death of Vikramaditya (or 50 AD) after a monk named Jinacandra spread the narrative that women could attain omniscience and salvation. It is worth mentioning that none of the two accounts from Digambara texts are confirmed and are believed to be much later additions (at least after 10th century CE).

Pattavali A Pattavali (From Sanskrit patta: seat, avali: chain), Sthaviravali or Theravali, is a record of a spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders. They are thus spiritual genealogies. It is generally presumed that two successive names are teach ...

s of both the sects confirm that there did not exist a pupil of Bhadrabāhu who was named Jinacandra. On the contrary, such anomalies are not observed in Śvetāmbara texts which describe only one account of the schism i.e., the one about Sahasramalla or

. Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code, interpretations of teachings, and on Jain history especially concerning the ''tirthankaras''. Their monasticism rules differ, as does their

iconography Iconography, as a branch of art history, studies the identification, description and interpretation of the content of images: the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details used to do so, and other elements that are distinct fro ...

. Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants, where Digambara has mostly had male monks and considers males closest to the soul's liberation. The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism and state that the 19th ''Tirthankara''

Māllīnātha Mallinatha (Prakrit ''Mallinātha'', Devanagari: मल्लिनाथ, Sanskrit: मल्लिनाथः, 'Lord of jasmine or seat') was the 19th Tirthankara, tīrthaṅkara "ford-maker" of the Jain cosmology#Time cycle, present ''avasa ...

was female, which Digambara rejects. Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing. Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart

Jains criticize Digambara sect's practices of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation. Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the

Kushan Empire The Kushan Empire (– CE) was a Syncretism, syncretic empire formed by the Yuezhi in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of what is now Afghanistan, Eastern Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Uzbe ...

(c.1st century CE). ''Tirthankara'' represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the ''Ardhaphalaka'' (half-clothed) mentioned in texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the ''Ardhaphalaka'', followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs. In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.

Scriptures and texts

Jain canonical scriptures are called ''Agamas''. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts, and to have originated from the sermons of the ''tirthankaras'', whereupon the ''

Ganadhara In Jainism, the term Ganadhara is used to refer the chief disciple of a ''Tirthankara''. In '' samavasarana'', the ''Tīrthankara'' sat on a throne without touching it (about two inches above it). Around, the ''Tīrthankara'' sits the ''Gana ...

s'' (chief disciples) transmitted them as ''Śhrut Jnāna'' (heard knowledge). The spoken scriptural language is believed to be ''

Ardhamagadhi Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain dramas. It was likely a Central Indo-Aryan language, related ...

'' by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains. The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost, and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara ''Āchāryas'' recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four ''anuyoga''. The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions. The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or ''Vedas'': history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics. The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the ''

Kalpa Sūtra The ''Kalpa Sūtra'' () is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Traditionally ascribed to Bhadrabahu, which would place it in the 4th century BCE, it was probably put in writing ...

s'' are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition. Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal. Both traditions consider his ''Niryuktis'' and ''Samhitas'' important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by

Umaswati Vācaka Umāsvāti, also spelled as Vācaka Umasvati and known as Vācaka Umāsvāmī, was an Indian scholar, possibly between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, known for his foundational writings on Jainism. He authored the Jainatext '' Tattvartha ...

, the ''

'' is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism. In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential, while the oldest being '' Kasayapahuda'' and ''

Shatkhandagama The (Prakrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the only canonical piece of literature of Digambara sect of Jainism. According to Digambara tradition, the original teachings of lord Mahavira were passed on orally from Ganadhar, the chief discip ...

'' attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include: '' Samayasara'', ''

Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is a Jain text composed by Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy (second century CE), an ''acharya'' of the Digambara sect of Jainism. Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy was originally from Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. Ratnakaranda śr� ...

'', and '' Niyamasara''.

Comparison with other religions

All four

Dharmic religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification o ...

—Jainism,

Sikhism Sikhism is an Indian religion and Indian philosophy, philosophy that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around the end of the 15th century CE. It is one of the most recently founded major religious groups, major religio ...

and

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

—share concepts and doctrines such as

and

rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a 2011 documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * '' ...

. They do not believe in eternal

heaven Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common Religious cosmology, religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deity, deities, angels, souls, saints, or Veneration of the dead, venerated ancestors are said to originate, be throne, ...

hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...

judgment day The Last Judgment is a concept found across the Abrahamic religions and the '' Frashokereti'' of Zoroastrianism. Christianity considers the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to entail the final judgment by God of all people who have ever lived, res ...

, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as ''

'' (non-violence) to be important, link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (''

''). Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises: While all three believe in impermanence, Buddhism incorporates the premise of '' anatta'' ("no eternal self or soul") while Hinduism maintains the concept of an eternal unchanging ''

atman Atman or Ātman may refer to: Religion * ''Ātman'' (Hinduism), meaning "Self", a philosophical concept common to all schools of Hindu philosophy * ''Ātman'' (Buddhism), ''attā'' or ''attan'', a reference to the essential self ** ''Anattā'' ...

'' ("soul"); by contrast, Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing ''

'' ("soul"). In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal ''jivas'', predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few ''siddhas'' (liberated ones). Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass

where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one Jainism rejected the non-dual concept, stating that if there were only one universal consciousness which was already liberated, the purpose of dharma would be nullified. Additionally, the need and desire for an infinitely blissful consciousness to create the universe would imply a limitation within that consciousness. Jainism also criticized Vedanta's inability to explain how an intangible consciousness could create a material universe, filled with countless living beings who experience suffering. Jain scholar Dr. Hukumchand Bharill explains that, according to both Jainism and Vedanta, only consciousness can perceive itself, while the

mind The mind is that which thinks, feels, perceives, imagines, remembers, and wills. It covers the totality of mental phenomena, including both conscious processes, through which an individual is aware of external and internal circumstances ...

and

body Body may refer to: In science * Physical body, an object in physics that represents a large amount, has mass or takes up space * Body (biology), the physical material of an organism * Body plan, the physical features shared by a group of anim ...

are incapable of recognizing and experiencing the soul. In Jainism, the soul, in its state of ignorance, mistakenly identifies with the body and consequently experiences suffering. When the soul realizes its true nature, it attains enlightenment, gaining infinite knowledge and bliss. If there were only a singular, universal consciousness, Bharill questions, who attains realization as the consciousness is already liberated, and the mind is incapable of experiencing soul's boundless knowledge-bliss nature. While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant ('' vibhu''), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...

through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being. Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth. Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India. Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system, but later scholars consider this a Western error. A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society. Monasticism is similar in all three traditions, with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in Atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annu ...

season, and celibacy, originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra. Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a ''sangha'' (monastery) and staying in its premises. Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls. In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks. Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified, and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty. Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers. The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain ''Tirthankara'' within its premises in a place of honour, while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and

Khajuraho Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous ...

feature both Hindu and Jain monuments. Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of

plant soul A plant soul is the religious philosophical concept that plants contain souls. Religions that recognize the existence of plant souls include Jainism and Manichaeism. In Jainism Jains believe that plants have souls ('' jīva'') that experience only ...

s, were transmitted from

Western Kshatrapa The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi: , ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central parts of India (extending from Saurashtra in the south and Malwa in the east, covering moder ...

territories to

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

and then integrated into

Manichaean Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...

beliefs.

Jainism and ecology

Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions, offers a profound ecological philosophy rooted in its core principles. As noted in the Jain Declaration on Nature, "Jainism is fundamentally a religion of ecology and has turned ecology into a religion. It has enabled Jains to create an environment-friendly value system and code of conduct."Singhvi L.M., Central to Jain ethics is ''

'' (non-violence), which extends beyond human interactions to encompass all living beings. "All breathing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law.” The Jain concept of ''parasparopagrahojīvānām'' in the Tattvarth Sutra, the most authoritative sacred text of Jains, teaches that all souls are responsible for one another and underscores the mutual interdependence of all life forms.Dr. Palakh Jain,

, the founder of Jainism taught, "One who neglects or disregards the existence of earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is entwined with them."L. M. SINGHVI, This principle is not merely philosophical but is reflected in daily practices. For instance, Jain monks and nuns often wear masks to prevent inhaling and harming microscopic organisms, demonstrating meticulous care for even the smallest forms of life. Jainism also emphasizes ''

aparigraha Non-possession (, ) is a religious tenet followed in Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions in South Asia. In Jainism, is the virtue of non-possessiveness, non-grasping, or non-greediness. is the opposite of . It means keeping the desire for po ...

'' (non-possessiveness), advocating for minimal consumption and a lifestyle that avoids excess. This principle encourages individuals to live sustainably, reducing their ecological footprint. "Using any resource beyond one's needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jain faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence." In contemporary times, Jain communities continue to uphold these ecological principles through various initiatives. These include

tree planting Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture and from the lower-cost but slower and les ...

wildlife conservation Wildlife conservation refers to the practice of protecting wild species and their habitats in order to maintain healthy wildlife species or populations and to restore, protect or enhance natural ecosystems. Major threats to wildlife include habita ...

, and promoting

vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the Eating, consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects as food, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slau ...

, all aimed at fostering a harmonious relationship with nature. Such practices exemplify the enduring relevance of Jain teachings in addressing modern environmental challenges. Through its unwavering commitment to non-violence, interdependence, and minimalism, Jainism offers a holistic framework for ecological sustainability, emphasizing the sacredness of all life and the importance of living in harmony with the environment.

Art and architecture

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of ''tirthankara'' or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. ''Yakshas'' and ''

yakshini Yakshinis or Yakshis (, , Prakrit languages, Prakrit: ) are a class of female nature spirits in Hinduism, Hindu, Buddhism, Buddhist, and Jainism, Jain religious mythologies that are different from Hindu deities, Devas and Asuras and Gandharva ...

s'', attendant spirits who guard the ''tirthankara'', are usually shown with them. The earliest known Jain image is in the

Patna Patna (; , ISO 15919, ISO: ''Paṭanā''), historically known as Pataliputra, Pāṭaliputra, is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and largest city of the state of Bihar in India. According to the United Nations, ...

museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE. Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE. ''Ayagapata'' is a type of

votive A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...

tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the ''

stupa In Buddhism, a stupa (, ) is a domed hemispherical structure containing several types of sacred relics, including images, statues, metals, and '' śarīra''—the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns. It is used as a place of pilgrimage and m ...

'', ''

dharmacakra The dharmachakra (Sanskrit: धर्मचक्र, ) or wheel of dharma is a symbol used in the Dharmic religions. It has a widespread use in Buddhism.John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel, ''The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art,'' p. ...

'' and ''

triratna In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Its object is typically the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple ...

''. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like

near

Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the states and union territories of India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located south-east of Delhi; and about from the town of Vrindavan. In ancient ti ...

in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE. ''

Samavasarana In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana ("Refuge to All") is the divine preaching hall of the Tirthankara, stated to have more than 20,000 stairs in it. The word ''samavasarana'' is derived from two words, ''sama'', meaning general and ''avasar ...

'', a preaching hall of ''tirthankaras'' with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art. The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture. Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology. Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as ''Panch Kalyanaka'', from the life of the ''tirthankara''. Rishabha, the first ''tirthankara'', is usually depicted in either the

lotus position Lotus position or Padmasana () is a cross-legged sitting meditation posture, meditation pose from History of India, ancient India, in which each foot is placed on the opposite thigh. It is an ancient asana in yoga, predating hatha yoga, and ...

or ''kayotsarga'', the standing position. He is distinguished from other ''tirthankara'' by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and

Indra Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes Indra is the m ...

marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the twenty-four ''tirthankara'' is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as ''Tiloyapannati'', ''Kahavaali'' and ''Pravacanasaarodhara''.

Temples

A Jain temple, a ''Derasar'' or ''Basadi'', is a

place of worship A place of worship is a specially designed structure or space where individuals or a group of people such as a congregation come to perform acts of devotion, veneration, or religious study. A building constructed or used for this purpose is s ...

. Temples contain ''tirthankara'' images, some fixed, others moveable. These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall. One of the images is marked as the ''moolnayak'' (primary deity). A ''

manastambha In Jainism, a ''manastambha'' () is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples or large Jain statues. In North India, they are topped by four Tirthankara images. According to the ''Digambara'' Jain texts like '' Adi Purana'' ...

'' (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. Temple construction is considered a meritorious act. Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (

Vidisha Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar and Bhaddilpur in ancient times) is a city in Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Vidisha district. It is located 62.5 km north ...

) and

Pataini temple The Pataini temple or Pataini devi temple is a 5th century Jain temple constructed during the reign of the Gupta Empire and located near the town of Unchehara in Madhya Pradesh, India. Location The Pataini temple is located on Satna-Unchehara ...

in Madhya Pradesh, the

Ellora The Ellora Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Aurangabad, India. It is one of the largest rock-cut cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from the period 600–1000 AD, including Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain caves., Quote: "The ...

in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near

Mount Abu Mount Abu (), known as Arbudgiri in Jain tradition, is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in the Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India. Here, the mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. It is ref ...

, Rajasthan. Chaumukha temple in

Ranakpur Ranakpur is a village located in Desuri tehsil near Pali city in the Pali district of Rajasthan in western India. The nearest Municipality A municipality is usually a single administrative division having municipal corporation, corporate s ...

is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings. According to Jain texts,

Shikharji Shikharji (), also known as Sammet or Sammed Shikharji, is one of the holiest pilgrimage sites for Jains, in Giridih district, Jharkhand. It is located on Parasnath hill, the highest mountain in the state of Jharkhand. It is the most important ...

is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain ''Tīrthaṅkaras'' along with many other monks attained ''moksha'' (died without being reborn, with their soul in ''

Siddhashila Siddhashila is an area in Jain cosmology at the apex of the universe, which is where the Jains believe people who have become '' arihants'' and ''tirthankaras'' go after they die and attain ''moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''v ...

''). The Shikharji site in northeastern

Jharkhand Jharkhand (; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in East India, eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north ...

is therefore a revered pilgrimage site. The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect. Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the

Jain community The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains. Sangha Jainism has a fourfold ord ...

. The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...

World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...

Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola (pronunciation: ) is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas ...

Saavira Kambada Basadi Saavira Kambada Temple () or Tribhuvana Tilaka Cūḍāmaṇi), is a ''basadi'' or Jain temple noted for its 1000 pillars in Moodabidri, Karnataka, India. The temple is also known as "Chandranatha Temple" since it honours the tirthankara Chandr ...

or ''1000 pillars'' and

Brahma Jinalaya The Brahma Jinalaya, sometimes called as the Greater Jain Temple of Lakkundi, is an early 11th-century Neminatha temple in Lakkundi, Gadag District of Karnataka state, India. The temple is attributed to Attiyabbe (Danacintamani Attimbbe), the w ...

are important Jain centers in Karnataka. In and around

Madurai Madurai ( , , ), formerly known as Madura, is a major city in the States and union territories of India, Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District, which is ...

, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures. The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of ''tirthanakars'' and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription. Jain cave temples at

Badami Badami, formerly known as Vātāpi (Sanskrit: from ''āpi'', ‘friend, ally’; ‘having the wind (vāta) as an ally’; Kannada script: ವಾತಾಪಿ), is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district o ...

Mangi-Tungi Mangi-Tungi is a prominent twin-pinnacled peak and Digambar Jain Pilgrimage Site, located near Tahrabad about 125 km from Nashik, Maharashtra, India. Mangi, high above sea level, is the western pinnacle and Tungi, high, the eastern. Ma ...

and the Ellora Caves are considered important. The

Sittanavasal Cave Sittanavasal Cave (also, Arivar Koil) is a 2nd-century Tamil Śramaṇa complex of caves in Sittanavasal village in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu, India. Its name is a distorted form of ''Sit-tan-na-va-yil'', a Tamil language, Tamil word whi ...

temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE.

Tamil-Brahmi Tamil-Brahmi, also known as Tamili or Damili, was a variant of the Brahmi script in southern India. It was used to write inscriptions in Old Tamil.Richard Salomon (1998) ''Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prak ...

inscriptions. The eighth century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India. File:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg,

Ranakpur Jain Temple Ranakpur Jain temple or Chaturmukha Dharana Vihara is a Śvētāmbara Jain temple at Ranakpur dedicated to ''Tirthankara'' Rishabhanatha. The temple is located in the village of Ranakpur near Sadri in the Pali district of Rajasthan. It is a ...

File:Delwada.jpg,

Dilwara Temples The Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples are a group of Śvētāmbara Jain temples located about kilometres from the Mount Abu settlement in Sirohi District, Rajasthan's only hill station. The earliest were built by Vimal Shah , a Jain mini ...

File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg, Parshvanath Temple in

File:Jain temples on Girnar mountain aerial view.jpg,

Girnar Jain temples There is a group of temples of Jainism on Mount Girnar near Junagadh in Junagadh District, Junagadh district, Gujarat, India. While almost all the temples belong to the Śvetāmbara sect, some also belong to the Digambara sect. The hill and so ...

File:Jal Mandir.The Jain Temple at Pawapur,.jpg,

Jal Mandir The Jal Mandir or Water Temple is situated in Pawapuri (also known as Apapapuri which means a town without sins), in the Indian state of Bihar. It is dedicated to Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara (religious preacher of Jainism), which marks the pla ...

Pawapuri Pawapuri, or Pavapuri (also called Apapapuri, meaning "the sinless town"), is a holy site for Jainism, Jains located in the Nalanda district of Bihar state in East India, eastern India. It is located about 19 kilometres from Rajgir and 101 kilo ...

File:Lodurva Temples.jpg,

Lodhurva Jain temple Lodhurva Jain temple is a Jain temple in the Lodhruva village of Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan. It belongs to the Śvetāmbara sect of Jainism History Lodhruva was established as the capital by Rawal Deoraj, the Bhati clan, in 8th−9th ...

File:Palitana.jpg, Palitana temples File:1000-Pillar-Temple-Moodbidri-Left-Side-View.JPG,

Moodbidri Moodubidire (''Mūḍubidire''; also called Mudbidri, Moodbidri and Bedra) is a town and taluk in Dakshina Kannada district. It lies 34 km northeast of the district headquarters, Mangalore, in Karnataka, India. Because of widely grown b ...

Karnataka Karnataka ( ) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed as Mysore State on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, States Re ...

File:Templejaindanvers.jpg,

Jain temple, Antwerp The Shankheshwar Parshvanath Jain Temple is a Jain temple located in the municipality Wilrijk of Antwerp Province, Belgium. It is currently the only Jain temple in continental Europe. History The building has a surface area of 1,000 m2 and ha ...

Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...

File:Jain temple at Lakkundi.jpg,

Lakkundi Lakkundi, also referred to as Lokkugundi, was a major city before the 14th century, and is now a village in Gadag District of Karnataka, India. By 10th century, it was already a major economic and commercial center working with mint operation ...

File:Sheth_Hutheesinh_Temple.jpg,

Hutheesing Jain Temple Hutheesing Temple is a Jain temple in Ahmedabad in Gujarat, India. It was constructed in 1848 by the Hutheesing family. The temple blends the old Maru-Gurjara temple architecture style with new architectural elements of ''haveli'' in its des ...

Pilgrimages

Jain ''Tirtha'' (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories: * ''Siddhakshetra''Site of the ''moksha'' of an ''arihant'' (''kevalin'') or ''tirthankara'', such as:

Ashtapada Ashtāpada () or Ashtapadi is an Indian board game. Although it is played on a checkered board similar to chess, Ashtāpada predates it and differs in its mechanics and victory conditions. The game was mentioned on the list of games that Gautama ...

of 20

Tirthankara In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (; ) is a saviour and supreme preacher of the ''Dharma (Jainism), dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a ''Tirtha (Jainism), tirtha'', a fordable passage across ''Saṃsā ...

Girnar Girnar is an ancient hill in Junagadh, Gujarat, India. It is one of the holiest pilgrimages of Jains, where the 22nd Tirthankara, Tirthaṅkar, Lord Neminath attained omniscience, and later nirvana at its highest peak (''Neminath Shikhar''), ...

of Mahaveera,

Champapuri Champapuri, Champa Nagri or Champanagar is a neighbourhood in Bhagalpur in the Indian state of Bihar. It is the site of the ancient city of Champa, the capital of the Anga Mahajanapada. It is also the main centre of capital of cultural re ...

(capital of

Anga Anga was an ancient Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan tribe of eastern South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age in India, Iron Age. The members of the Aṅga tribe were called the Āṅgeyas. Counted among the "sixteen great na ...

) of

Vasupujya Vasupujya is the twelfth tirthankara in Jainism of the '' avasarpini'' (present age). According to Jain beliefs, he became a siddha, a liberated soul which has destroyed all of its karma. Vasupujya was born to King Vasupujya and Queen Jaya Dev ...

Ram Ram, ram, or RAM most commonly refers to: * A male sheep * Random-access memory, computer memory * Ram Trucks, US, since 2009 ** List of vehicles named Dodge Ram, trucks and vans ** Ram Pickup, produced by Ram Trucks Ram, ram, or RAM may also ref ...

Palitana Palitana is a city in the Bhavnagar district of the Indian state of Gujarat. It is one of the most significant pilgrimage destinations for followers of Jainism, renowned for the Shatrunjaya hill temples, a sprawling complex of over 900 marble t ...

of 3

Pandavas The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...

. * ''Atishayakshetra''Locations where divine events are believed to have occurred, such as: Mahavirji, Rishabhdeo,

Kundalpur Kundalpur is a town located in Damoh district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Located northeast of the city of Damoh, Kundalpur is a pilgrimage site for Digambar Jainism, Jains. Location Nearby cities include Damoh , Sagar, Madhya Pra ...

Tijara Tijara is a city and a municipality in Khairthal-Tijara district of the Indian state of Rajasthan. Tijara comes under the NCR area and is situated 55 km to the northeast of Alwar. The nearest railway station to Tijara is Khairthal. Bhiwad ...

, and

Aharji Aharji is a historical pilgrimage site for Jainism in India. It is located in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, on the road from Tikamgarh to Chhatarpur. This place is famous for Jain Temple. Aharji Jain Teerth Aharji is a place ful ...

. * ''Puranakshetra'' Places associated with the lives of great men, such as:

Ayodhya Ayodhya () is a city situated on the banks of the Sarayu river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ayodhya district as well as the Ayodhya division of Uttar Pradesh, India. Ayodhya became th ...

Hastinapur Hastinapur is a city in the Meerut district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ''Hastinapura'' is described as the capital of the Kuru Kingdom in Hindu texts such as the ''Mahabharata'' and the Puranas; it is also mentioned in ancient Jain ...

, and Rajgir. * ''Gyanakshetra'' Places associated with famous ''acharyas'', or centers of learning, such as

. Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built Nagarparkar Jain Temples, temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".

Statues and sculptures

Thirthankara Suparshvanath Museum Rietberg RVI 306

Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four ''tīrthaṅkaras''; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in

or ''kayotsarga'', along with ''Arihant'',

, and protector deities like Ambika. Quadruple images are also popular. ''Tirthankar'' idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented. A monolithic, statue of Bahubali, ''Gommateshvara'', built in 981 CE by the Western Ganga dynasty, Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in

. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by ''The Times of India''. The tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015. Idols are often made in ''Ashtadhatu'' (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones.

Symbols

Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, Om#Jainism, ''Om'', and the ''Ashtamangala''. In Jainism, ''Om'' is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "''Arihant'', ''Ashiri'', ''Acharya'', ''Upajjhaya'', ''Muni''". The ''Ashtamangala'' is a set of eight auspicious symbols: in the Digambara tradition, these are chatra (umbrella), chatra, ''dhvaja'', ''kalasha'', fly-whisk, mirror, chair, hand fan and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, ''Srivatsa'', ''Nandavarta'', ''Vardhmanaka'' (food vessel), ''Bhadrasana'' (seat), ''Kalasha'' (pot), ''Darpan'' (mirror) and pair of fish. The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism, ''ahimsā''. The wheel represents the ''dharmachakra'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ''ahimsā''. The five colours of the Jain flag represent the ''Pañca-Parameṣṭhi'' and the five vows. The swastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans. The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection. In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism. It depicts the three ''lokas'', heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes ''Siddhashila'', a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of ''Ahiṃsā'' are included, with the Jain mantra ''Parasparopagraho Jivanam, Parasparopagraho Jīvānām'' from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's ''Tattvarthasūtra'', meaning "souls render service to one another".

History

Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''tirthankars, tirthankaras'' and revere

as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilisation, Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two ''tirthankaras'', the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th ''tirthankara''

(c. 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the

. According to Jain texts, the 22nd ''Tirthankara''

lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.

Ancient

Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first ''tirthankara''

as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle. It is one of the ''Śramaṇa'' traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas, and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed. The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars as historicity, historical figures. The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was likely a historical being, dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE; historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE. Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jain Śramaṇa, ascetic community which subsequently got revived and reformed by

. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE. The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them. Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines. Kings Bimbisara (–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (–460 BCE), and Udayin (–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism. Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life. Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting. The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the ''Niganthas'' (Jains). ''Tirthankara'' statues date back to the second century BCE. Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards. Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE. Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism. In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples. King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism. The Pallava King Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism. His work ''Mattavilasa Prahasana'' ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics. The Seuna (Yadava) dynasty, Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE. King Āma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era. Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain. During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain Kalachuris of Kalyani, Kalachuri king Bijjala II, Bijjala, converted many Jains to the Lingayatism, Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use. The Hoysala dynasty, Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana (–1152 CE) became a Vaishnava, Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka. File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG, Rishabhanatha, Rishabhdev, believed to have lived over 592.704×10¹⁸ years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism. File:Ashoka Pillar at Feroze Shah Kotla, Delhi 03.JPG, Jain inscription of Ashoka () File:Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg, ''Chaumukha'' Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), LACMA, sixth century File:Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves built by King Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty in second century CE File:La grotte Jain Indra Sabha Ellora Caves, India.jpg, The Indra Sabha cave at the Ellora Caves are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments. File:Kazhugumalai_Jain_beds_(8).jpg, Kazhugumalai Jain beds

Medieval

Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of Delhi Sultanate remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi. One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples. Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars. The Mughal Empire, Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under Humayun (1540–1556), Akbar (1556–1605), Jahangir (1605–1627) and even Aurangzeb (1658–1707). Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. Babur (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in Gwalior. In 1567, Akbar Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568), ravaged the fort of Chittor. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor. Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under Jahangir, Shah Jahan and most notably under Aurangzeb. The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.

Colonial era

A Gujarati Jain scholar, Virchand Gandhi, represented Jainism at the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893, held in America during the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago World's Fair. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism. Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher from Gujarat is believed to have attained ''jatismaran gnana'' (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions. He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi. Shrimad Rajchandra composed Atma Siddhi, Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours. He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul: # Self (soul) exists # It is permanent and eternal # It is the doer of its own actions # It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions # Liberation exists # There is a path to achieve liberation. Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion. Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists. Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious. These criticisms, states John E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity. The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks. The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance. The laws were abolished by India after independence.

Modern era

Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ''ji'', which means to conquer. In the Jain context, monks have to conquer their senses and karma for liberation. Those who have succeeded are ''jinas'' (victors), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation, and their followers are Jains. With four to five million followers worldwide, Jainism is small compared to Major religious groups, major world religions. The majority of Jains currently reside in India, where they form 0.37% of the population; Jains are concentrated in Jainism in Maharashtra, Maharashtra (1.4 million in 2011, 31.46% of Indian Jains), Jainism in Rajasthan, Rajasthan (13.97%), Jainism in Gujarat, Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.74%). Significant Jain populations exist in Jainism in Karnataka, Karnataka (9.89%), Jainism in Uttar Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Jainism in Delhi, Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Jain, Tamil Nadu (2.01%). Outside India, Jain communities are present in most areas hosting Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin, large Indian populations, including Jainism in Europe, Europe, the Jainism in the United Kingdom, United Kingdom, the Jainism in the United States, United States, Jainism in Canada, Canada, Australia, and Jainism in Africa, Kenya. Owing to centuries-long trading ties, Jains first settled abroad in east Africa, particularly Kenya and Uganda, during the 20th century. Political unrest in the 1960s drove many Jains to migrant to the U.K., where the first Jain temple outside India was consecrated in Leicester. Jainism also counts non-Indian converts; for example, it is spreading rapidly in

, where more than 5,000 families have converted between 2010 and 2020. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in 2015–16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India. According to its 2011 census, they have the country's highest literacy rate (87%) among those aged seven and older, and the most college graduates; excluding the retired, Jain literacy in India exceeded 97%. The female to male sex ratio among Jains is .940; among Indians in the 0–6 year age range, the ratio was second lowest (870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher only than Sikhism, Sikhs. Jain males have the highest work participation rates in India, while Jain females have the lowest. Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs. Greatly influenced by Shrimad Rajchandra, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism: Acharya Chandana, Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

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External links

*
"The Original Home of Jainism"
by S. Srikanta Sastri
"Youngest Jain Sadhviji to Observe 285 Fasts in 11 Months – Muktavali Tapasya"
by World Records India * {{Authority control Jainism, Dualism in cosmology History of religion in India Indian religions Nāstika Religions that require vegetarianism