Indo-Pak Wars
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Since the
partition of British India The partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent dominion states, the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The Union of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan is the Islam ...
in 1947 and subsequent creation of the
dominion A dominion was any of several largely self-governance, self-governing countries of the British Empire, once known collectively as the ''British Commonwealth of Nations''. Progressing from colonies, their degrees of self-governing colony, colon ...
s of
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
and
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
, the two countries have been involved in a number of wars, conflicts, and military standoffs. A long-running dispute over Kashmir and cross-border terrorism have been the predominant cause of conflict between the two states, with the exception of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which occurred as a direct result of hostilities stemming from the
Bangladesh Liberation War The Bangladesh Liberation War (, ), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, was an War, armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalism, Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement in East Pakistan, which res ...
in erstwhile
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
(now
Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...
).


Background

The
Partition of India The partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent dominion states, the Dominion of India, Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The Union of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Paki ...
came in 1947 with the sudden grant of independence. It was the intention of those who wished for a Muslim state to have a clean partition between independent and equal "Pakistan" and "Hindustan" once independence came.* Nearly one third of the Muslim population of India remained in the new India. Inter-communal violence between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims resulted in between 200,000 and 2 million casualties leaving 14 million people displaced. Princely states in India were provided with an
Instrument of Accession The Instrument of Accession was a legal document first introduced by the Government of India Act 1935 and used in 1947 to enable each of the rulers of the princely states under British paramountcy to join one of the new dominions of Dominion ...
to accede to either India or Pakistan.


Wars


Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948

The war, also called the first Indo-Pakistani war, started in October 1947 when Pakistan feared that the
Maharaja Maharaja (also spelled Maharajah or Maharaj; ; feminine: Maharani) is a royal title in Indian subcontinent, Indian subcontinent of Sanskrit origin. In modern India and Medieval India, medieval northern India, the title was equivalent to a pri ...
of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu would accede to India. Following partition, princely states were left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent. Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the princely states, had a majority Muslim population and significant fraction of Hindu population, all ruled by the Hindu
Maharaja Maharaja (also spelled Maharajah or Maharaj; ; feminine: Maharani) is a royal title in Indian subcontinent, Indian subcontinent of Sanskrit origin. In modern India and Medieval India, medieval northern India, the title was equivalent to a pri ...
Hari Singh Hari Singh Bahadur (September 1895 – 26 April 1961) was the last ruling Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir of the Dogra dynasty. Hari Singh was the son of Amar Singh and Bhotiali Chib. In 1923, following his uncle's deat ...
. Tribal Islamic forces with support from the army of Pakistan attacked and occupied parts of the princely state forcing the Maharaja to sign the
Instrument of Accession The Instrument of Accession was a legal document first introduced by the Government of India Act 1935 and used in 1947 to enable each of the rulers of the princely states under British paramountcy to join one of the new dominions of Dominion ...
of the princely state to the
Dominion of India The Dominion of India, officially the Union of India, * * was an independent dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations existing between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950. Until its Indian independence movement, independence, India had be ...
to receive Indian military aid. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 22 April 1948. The fronts solidified gradually along what came to be known as the
Line of Control The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the Indian and Pakistanicontrolled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary, but ser ...
. A formal cease-fire was declared at 23:59 on the night of 1 January 1949. India gained control of about two-thirds of the state (
Kashmir Valley The Kashmir Valley, also known as the Vale of Kashmir, is an intermontane valley in northern Jammu and Kashmir, a region in Indian-administered Kashmir.(a) (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcont ...
,
Jammu Jammu () is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region.The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute ...
and
Ladakh Ladakh () is a region administered by India as a union territory and constitutes an eastern portion of the larger Kashmir region that has been the subject of a Kashmir#Kashmir dispute, dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947 and India an ...
) whereas Pakistan gained roughly a third of The Pakistan controlled areas are collectively referred to as Pakistan administered Kashmir.


Indo-Pakistani war of 1965

This war started following Pakistan's
Operation Gibraltar Operation Gibraltar was the codename of a military operation planned and executed by the Pakistan Army in the territory of Jammu and Kashmir, India in August 1965. The operation's strategy was to covertly cross the Line of Control (LoC) an ...
, which was designed to infiltrate forces into
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory since 2019 * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered by India as a state from 1952 to 2019 * Jammu and Kashmir (prin ...
to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on
West Pakistan West Pakistan was the western province of Pakistan between One Unit, 1955 and Legal Framework Order, 1970, 1970, covering the territory of present-day Pakistan. Its land borders were with Afghanistan, India and Iran, with a maritime border wit ...
. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. The hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and USA and the subsequent issuance of the
Tashkent Declaration The Tashkent Declaration was signed between India and Pakistan on 10 January 1966 to resolve the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Peace was achieved on 23 September through interventions by the Soviet Union and the United States, both of which pus ...
. India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared. Quote: Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened on 22 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.


Indo-Pakistani war of 1971

This war was unique in the way that it did not involve the issue of Kashmir, but was rather precipitated by the crisis created by the political battle brewing in erstwhile
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
(now
Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...
) between
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (17 March 1920 – 15 August 1975), also known by the honorific Bangabandhu, was a Bangladeshi politician, revolutionary, statesman and activist who was the founding president of Bangladesh. As the leader of Bangl ...
, Leader of
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
, and
Yahya Khan Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (4 February 191710 August 1980) was a Pakistani army officer who served as the third president of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971. He also served as the fifth Commander-in-Chief, Pakistan, commander-in-chief of the Pakistan ...
and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister and politician who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan from 19 ...
, leaders of West Pakistan. This would culminate in the declaration of Independence of
Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...
from the state system of Pakistan. Following
Operation Searchlight Operation Searchlight was a military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army in an effort to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in former East Pakistan in March 1971. Pakistan retrospectively justified the operation on the basis of ant ...
and the
1971 Bangladesh atrocities The Bangladesh genocide was the ethnic cleansing of Bengalis residing in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during the Bangladesh Liberation War, perpetrated by the Pakistan Army and the Razakars. It began on 25 March 1971, as Operation Searchlig ...
, about 10 million Bengalis in East Pakistan took refuge in neighbouring India. India intervened in the ongoing
Bangladesh liberation movement Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and among the most densely populated with a population of over 171 million within an area of . Bangl ...
. After a large scale
pre-emptive strike A preemptive war is a war that is commenced in an attempt to repel or defeat a perceived imminent offensive or invasion, or to gain a strategic advantage in an impending (allegedly unavoidable) war ''shortly before'' that attack materializes. It ...
by Pakistan, full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced. Pakistan attacked at several places along India's western border with Pakistan, but the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
successfully held their positions. The Indian Army quickly responded to the Pakistan Army's movements in the west and made some initial gains, including capturing around of Pakistani territory (land gained by India in Pakistani Kashmir,
Pakistani Punjab Punjab (, ) is a province of Pakistan. With a population of over 127 million, it is the most populous province in Pakistan and the second most populous subnational polity in the world. Located in the central-eastern region of the country, i ...
and
Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
sectors but gifted it back to Pakistan in the
Simla Agreement The Simla Agreement, also spelled Shimla Agreement, was a peace treaty signed between India and Pakistan on 2 July 1972 in Shimla, the capital of Himachal Pradesh. It followed the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which began after India interv ...
of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill). Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces in
East Pakistan East Pakistan was the eastern province of Pakistan between 1955 and 1971, restructured and renamed from the province of East Bengal and covering the territory of the modern country of Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India and Burma, wit ...
surrendered to the joint command of Indian and Bangladeshi forces following which the
People's Republic of Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and among the most densely populated with a population of over 171 million within an area of . Bangl ...
was created. The war resulted in the surrender of more than 90,000 Pakistani Army troops. In the words of one Pakistani author, "Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force and a third of its army".


Kargil War (1999)

This conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. During early 1999, Pakistani troops infiltrated across the
Line of Control The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the Indian and Pakistanicontrolled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary, but ser ...
(LoC) and occupied Indian territory mostly in the
Kargil district Kargil district is a district in Indian-administered Ladakh in the Kashmir#Dispute, disputed Kashmir-region,The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute is supported by the ...
. India responded by launching a major military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani infiltrators. Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators. According to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control.Kargil: where defence met diplomacy
- India's then
Chief of Army Staff Chief may refer to: Title or rank Military and law enforcement * Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force * Chief of police, the head of a police department * Chief of the boat ...
VP Malik, expressing his views on Operation Vijay. Hosted on ''
Daily Times ''Daily Times'' may refer to the following national newspapers: * ''Daily Times'' (Nigeria), newspaper published in Nigeria * ''Daily Times'' (Pakistan), newspaper published in Pakistan ''The Daily Times'' may refer to the following newspapers: * ...
''
The Fate of Kashmir By Vikas Kapur and Vipin Narang
Stanford Journal of International Relations
Book review of "The Indian Army: A Brief History by Maj Gen Ian Cardozo"
- Hosted on IPCS
Fearing large-scale escalation in military conflict, the international community, led by the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to withdraw forces from remaining Indian territory. Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile Pakistani economy was weakened further.Samina Ahmed. "Diplomatic Fiasco: Pakistan's Failure on the Diplomatic Front Nullifies its Gains on the Battlefield"
(Belfer Center for International Affairs,
Harvard Kennedy School The John F. Kennedy School of Government, commonly referred to as Harvard Kennedy School (HKS), is the school of public policy of Harvard University, a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard Kennedy School offers master's de ...
)
The morale of Pakistani forces after the withdrawal declined as many units of the
Northern Light Infantry The Northern Light Infantry Regiment (NLI) is a light infantry regiment in the Pakistan Army, based and currently headquartered in Gilgit, Pakistan. Along with other forces of the Pakistani military, the NLI has the primary responsibility of con ...
suffered heavy casualties. The government refused to accept the dead bodies of many officers, an issue that provoked outrage and protests in the Northern Areas. Pakistan initially did not acknowledge many of its casualties, but
Nawaz Sharif Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif (born 25 December 1949) is a Pakistani politician and businessman who served as the 12th Prime Minister of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan for three non-consecutive terms, first serving from 1990 to 1993, then ...
later said that over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed in the operation and that Pakistan had lost the conflict. By the end of July 1999, organized hostilities in the Kargil district had ceased. The war was a major military defeat for the Pakistani Army.


Other conflicts

Apart from the aforementioned wars, there have been other regional conflicts between the two nations from time to time, which have not bordered on all-out war.


Siachen conflict (1984–2003)

The Siachen conflict, sometimes referred to as the Siachen Glacier conflict or the Siachen War, was a military conflict between India and Pakistan over the disputed
Siachen Glacier The Siachen Glacier is a glacier located in the eastern Karakoram range of the Himalayas, just northeast of the point NJ9842 where the Line of Control between India and Pakistan ends in northeastern Kashmir. At long, it is the longest glaci ...
region in
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
. The conflict was started in 1984 by India's successful capture of the Siachen Glacier as part of
Operation Meghdoot Operation Meghdoot was the codename for the Indian Armed Forces operation to take full control of the Siachen Glacier in Ladakh. Executed on the morning of 13 April 1984, it marks the highest battlefield in the world. This operation preempted Pa ...
, and continued with
Operation Rajiv Operation Rajiv was the codename for an Indian Army operation that aimed to capture a high point along the Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) on the Siachen Glacier in June 1987. Prior to this operation, the area had been under the control of P ...
in 1987. India took control of the Siachen Glacier and its tributary glaciers, as well as all the main passes and heights of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier, including
Sia La Sia La is a mountain pass situated on Saltoro Ridge, in Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan some north-northwest of map point NJ9842 which defined the end of the 1972 Line of Control between India and Pakistan as part of the Simla Agreement. Sia L ...
,
Bilafond La Bilafond La (meaning "Pass of the Butterflies" in Balti language), also known as the Saltoro Pass, is a mountain pass situated on Saltoro Ridge, sitting immediately west of the vast Siachen Glacier, some directly north of map point NJ 98042 ...
, and
Gyong La Gyong La is a mountain pass situated on Saltoro Ridge southwest of the vast Siachen Glacier, some directly north of map point NJ9842 which defined the end of the 1972 Line of Control between India and Pakistan. With Pakistan controlling areas ...
. Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003, but both sides maintain a heavy military presence in the area.


India-Pakistan conflict (2025)

The 2025 India–Pakistan conflict was a brief armed conflict between
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
and
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
that began on 7 May 2025, after India launched missile strikes on Pakistan, codenamed Operation Sindoor. India stated that the operation was a response to the
Pahalgam attack The 2025 Pahalgam attack was a terrorist attack on tourists by five armed terrorists near Pahalgam in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in which 26 civilians were killed on 22 April 2025. The militants mainly targeted Hindu tourists, tho ...
on 22 April by militants in the Indian administered Kashmir killing 26 civilians, mostly tourists. The attack intensified tensions between India and Pakistan as India accused Pakistan of supporting cross-border terrorism, which Pakistan denied. According to India, the missile strikes of Operation Sindoor targeted the camps and infrastructure of militant groups
Jaish-e-Mohammed Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) is a Pakistani Deobandi jihadist Islamist militant group active in Kashmir.: "as soon as he was freed, Masood Azhar was back in Pakistan where he founded a new jihadist movement, Jaish-e-Mohammed, which became one of ...
and
Lashkar-e-Taiba Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) is a Pakistani Islamism, Islamist militant organization driven by a Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist ideology. The organisation's primary stated objective is to merge the whole of Kashmir with Pakistan. It was founded in 19 ...
, and no Pakistani military facilities were targeted. According to Pakistan, the Indian strikes targeted civilian areas, including mosques, killing 31 Pakistani civilians. Following these strikes, border skirmshes and drone strikes occurred between the two countries. On 10 May, Pakistan launched an operation codenamed Operation Bunyan al-Marsus, targeting several Indian military bases. In retaliation, India also continued Operation Sindoor, expanding its scope to target Pakistani military installations. This conflict marked the first drone battle between the two nuclear-armed nations. After three days of the conflict, both India and Pakistan announced that a ceasefire was agreed, effective from 5:00 pm
IST #REDIRECT Ist {{redirect category shell, {{R from other capitalisation{{R from ambiguous page ...
/04:30 pm PKT (11:30 
UTC Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the primary time standard globally used to regulate clocks and time. It establishes a reference for the current time, forming the basis for civil time and time zones. UTC facilitates international communica ...
) on 10 May, with talks set for 12 May. Following the deadline, both countries accused each other of violating the ceasefire agreement.


Skirmishes, incidents and standoffs

Alongside full-scale wars and conflicts, several notable military skirmishes, border incidents, and standoffs have occurred between India and Pakistan, further straining bilateral relations and drawing international attention. * Operation Desert Hawk : Operation Desert Hawk was the codename for the military operation launched by the Pakistan Army in this area. At the time, the Rann of Kutch was under Indian control as per the long-standing status quo, but its boundary remained one of the few unresolved territorial disputes stemming from the 1947 Partition of India. *
Operation Brasstacks Operation Brasstacks was a combined arms military exercise of the Indian Armed Forces in the state of Rajasthan from November 1986 to January 1987. The operation's aim was to determine tactical nuclear strategy. As part of a series of exerci ...
: The largest of its kind in South Asia, it was conducted by India between November 1986 and March 1987. Pakistani mobilisation in response raised tensions and fears that it could lead to another war between the two neighbours. * 1999 Pakistani Atlantic shootdown : In this incident, a
Pakistan Navy The Pakistan Navy (PN) (; ''romanized'': Pākistān Bahrí'a; ) is the naval warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The Chief of the Naval Staff, a four-star admiral, commands the navy and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Com ...
Bréguet 1150 Atlantic The Breguet Br.1150 Atlantic is a long-range maritime patrol aircraft designed and manufactured by French aircraft manufacturer Breguet Aviation. Designed in response to a 1958 NATO specification as a replacement for the Lockheed P2V Neptune, B ...
maritime patrol aircraft operated by the
Pakistan Naval Air Arm The Pakistan Naval Air Arm (unofficially: Pakistan Naval Aviation) is the naval aviation and military administrative branch of the Pakistan Navy. The air arm is tasked with providing configuration of all naval aviation aircraft and is respo ...
was shot down by the
Indian Air Force The Indian Air Force (IAF) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the air force, air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare during armed conflicts. It was officially established on 8 Octob ...
on 10 August 1999 for allegedly violating Indian airspace. The incident occurred over the
Rann of Kutch The Rann of Kutch is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located mostly in the Kutch district of the Indian state of Gujarat, with a minor portion extending into the Sindh province of Pakistan. ...
, just a month after the
Kargil War The Kargil War, was fought between India and Pakistan from May to July 1999 in the Kargil district of Ladakh, then part of the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (state), Jammu and Kashmir and along the Line of Control (LoC). In In ...
, significantly heightening tensions between India and
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
. All 16 personnel on board were killed.
While India maintained that the aircraft had intruded into its airspace on a reconnaissance mission, foreign diplomats noted that although the plane may have briefly crossed the border, it crashed within Pakistani territory. Several international observers viewed India's response as excessive.
Pakistan subsequently filed a case against India at the
International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice (ICJ; , CIJ), or colloquially the World Court, is the only international court that Adjudication, adjudicates general disputes between nations, and gives advisory opinions on International law, internation ...
(ICJ), seeking compensation for the incident. However, in a split decision, the ICJ ruled that it lacked jurisdiction over the matter and dismissed the case. *
2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff The 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff was a military standoff between India and Pakistan that resulted in the massing of troops on both sides of the India–Pakistan border, border and along the Line of Control (LoC) in the region of Kashmi ...
: The terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament on 13 December 2001, which India blamed on the Pakistan-based terrorist organisations,
Lashkar-e-Taiba Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) is a Pakistani Islamism, Islamist militant organization driven by a Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist ideology. The organisation's primary stated objective is to merge the whole of Kashmir with Pakistan. It was founded in 19 ...
and
Jaish-e-Mohammed Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) is a Pakistani Deobandi jihadist Islamist militant group active in Kashmir.: "as soon as he was freed, Masood Azhar was back in Pakistan where he founded a new jihadist movement, Jaish-e-Mohammed, which became one of ...
, prompted the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff and brought both sides close to war. * 2008 India–Pakistan standoff: a stand-off between the two nations following the
2008 Mumbai attacks The 2008 Mumbai attacks, also referred to as 26/11 attacks, were a series of coordinated Islamic terrorism, Islamist terrorist attacks that took place in November 2008, when 10 members of Lashkar-e-Taiba, a Pakistan-based Islamist terrorist o ...
which was defused by diplomatic efforts. Following ten coordinated shooting and bombing attacks across
Mumbai Mumbai ( ; ), also known as Bombay ( ; its official name until 1995), is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial capital and the most populous city proper of India with an estimated population of 12 ...
, India's largest city, tensions heightened between the two countries since India claimed interrogation results alleging Pakistan's ISI supporting the attackers while Pakistan denied any official Pakistani involvement in the attacks. Pakistan placed its air force on alert and moved troops to the Indian border, voicing concerns about proactive movements of the
Indian Army The Indian Army (IA) (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the Land warfare, land-based branch and largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief, Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and its professional head ...
and the Indian government's possible plans to launch attacks on Pakistani soil. The tension defused in a short time and Pakistan moved its troops away from the border. *
2011 India–Pakistan border skirmish The 2011 India–Pakistan border skirmish was a series of incidents which took place during the months of July and August 2011 across the Line of Control in Kupwara district and Neelam Valley. Both countries gave different accounts of the incide ...
: This incident took place between 30 August and 1 September 2011 across the
Line of Control The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the Indian and Pakistanicontrolled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary, but ser ...
in
Kupwara district Kupwara district is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region.The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mentio ...
/
Neelam Valley Neelum (spelt also ''Neelam''; ) is a district of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir, in the disputed Kashmir region.The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kashmir disput ...
, resulting in five Indian soldiers and three Pakistani soldiers being killed. Both countries gave different accounts of the incident, each accusing the other of initiating the hostilities. * 2013 India–Pakistan border incident in the Mendhar sector of Jammu and Kashmir, due to the beheading of an Indian soldier. A total of 22 soldiers (12 Indian and 10 Pakistani) died. * 2014–2015 India–Pakistan border Incidents: Started in Arnia sector of Jammu and Kashmir due to killing of 1 soldier of
Border Security Force The Border Security Force (BSF) is a central armed police force in India under the Ministry of Home Affairs. It is responsible for guarding India’s borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh. It was formed in the wake of the Indo-Pak War of 196 ...
and injured 3 soldiers and 4 civilians by
Pakistan Rangers The Pakistan Rangers () are a pair of paramilitary federal law enforcement corps' in Pakistan. The two corps are the Punjab Rangers (operating in Punjab province with headquarters in Lahore) and the Sindh Rangers (operating in Sindh province w ...
. *
2016–2018 India–Pakistan border skirmishes The 2016–2018 India–Pakistan border skirmishes were a series of armed clashes between India and Pakistan, mostly consisting of heavy exchanges of gunfire between Indian and Pakistani forces across the '' de facto'' border, known as the L ...
: On 29 September 2016, border skirmishes between India and Pakistan began following reported "
surgical strike A surgical strike is a military attack which is intended to damage only a legitimate military target, with no or minimal collateral damage to surrounding structures, vehicles, buildings, or the general public infrastructure and utilities. Desc ...
s" by India against militant launch pads across the
Line of Control The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the Indian and Pakistanicontrolled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary, but ser ...
in
Pakistani-administered Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. The term has since ...
"killing a large number of terrorists". Pakistan rejected that a strike took place, stating that Indian troops had not crossed the Line of Control but had only skirmished with Pakistani troops at the border, resulting in the deaths of two Pakistani soldiers and the wounding of nine. Pakistan rejected India's reports of any other casualties. Pakistani sources reported that at least eight Indian soldiers were killed in the exchange, and one was captured. India confirmed that one of its soldiers was in Pakistani custody, but denied that it was linked to the incident or that any of its soldiers had been killed. The Indian operation was said to be in retaliation for a
militant The English word ''militant'' is both an adjective and a noun, and it is generally used to mean vigorously active, combative and/or aggressive, especially in support of a cause, as in "militant reformers". It comes from the 15th century Lat ...
attack on the Indian army at
Uri Uri may refer to: Places * Canton of Uri, a canton in Switzerland * Úri, a village and commune in Hungary * Uri, Iran, a village in East Azerbaijan Province * Uri, Jammu and Kashmir, a town in India * Uri (island), off Malakula Island in V ...
on 18 September in the Indian-administered state of
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory since 2019 * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered by India as a state from 1952 to 2019 * Jammu and Kashmir (prin ...
that left 19 soldiers dead. In the succeeding days and months, India and Pakistan continued to exchange fire along the border in Kashmir, resulting in dozens of military and civilian casualties on both sides. *
2019 India–Pakistan border skirmishes In the aftermath of the Pulwama attack on 14 February 2019, a standoff emerged between India and Pakistan consisting of cross-border airstrikes and exchanges of gunfire between India and Pakistan across the ''de facto'' border in the disput ...
: On 14 February 2019, a suicide attack on a convoy of India's CRPF resulted in the death of at least 40 troops. Responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Pakistan-based
Jaish-e-Mohammad Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) is a Pakistani Deobandi jihadist Islamist militant group active in Kashmir.: "as soon as he was freed, Masood Azhar was back in Pakistan where he founded a new jihadist movement, Jaish-e-Mohammed, which became one of ...
(JeM). Twelve days later on 26 February 2019, Indian jets crossed the international border to conduct
air strikes An airstrike, air strike, or air raid is an offensive operation carried out by aircraft. Air strikes are delivered from aircraft such as blimps, balloons, fighter aircraft, attack aircraft, bombers, attack helicopters, and drones. The official d ...
on an alleged JeM camp in the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ; , ; abbr. KP or KPK), formerly known as the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Northern Pakistan, northwestern region of the country, Khyber ...
province of Pakistan. India claimed that a very large number of militants belonging to JeM were killed. Pakistan rejected to have suffered any losses. According to sources and satellite imagery analysis, the Indian Air Force appears to caused minimal damage to the buildings concerned, however, Pakistan had to close the site for one and a half month or 43 days before opened to media. The incidents escalated the tension between India and Pakistan. The following day, Indian and Pakistani air forces got locked on in an aerial engagement. Pakistan claimed to have shot down two Indian aircraft and capturing one pilot
Abhinandan Varthaman Group Captain Abhinandan Varthaman VrC (born 21 June 1983) is an Indian Air Force officer and a fighter pilot, who flew MiG-21 Bison, and was on 27 February 2019 was captured by the Pakistan Army when his plane was shot down by the Pakistan A ...
. Pakistan military officials claimed that the wreckage of one Indian Air Force jet was shot down in Pakistan-administered Kashmir while the other one fell in Indian-administered Kashmir rumored to be a
Sukhoi Su-30MKI The Sukhoi Su-30MKI (NATO reporting name: Flanker-H) is a two-seater, twinjet Multirole combat aircraft, multirole air superiority fighter developed by Russian aircraft manufacturer Sukhoi and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautic ...
. Meanwhile, the Indian government claimed to have only lost one
MiG-21 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet aircraft, jet fighter aircraft, fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan, Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB, Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Its nicknames in ...
while downing a Pakistani
F-16 The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is an American single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it e ...
. The IAF also displayed remnants of an
AIM-120 AMRAAM The AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) ( ) is an American Beyond-visual-range missile, beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile capable of all-weather day-and-night operations. It uses active transmit-receive radar guidance ...
missile that they claimed could only be fired by F-16s. The missiles were said to have fired against and jammed by Su-30 by IAF, however, Pakistan rejected the claim of their F-16 being shot down. It initially released three or later on displayed all four air to air missiles of MiG-21 Bison with all missile seeker heads recovered intact from the wreckage however with mid-body of one of R-73 destroyed and claimed that non-of missiles were ever fired. Following the threats of a full-scale war, Abhinandan was released within two days. The Pentagon correspondent of
Foreign Policy Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a State (polity), state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, includ ...
magazine, in a report claimed that Pakistan invited the United States to physically count its F-16s after the incident. Two senior U.S. defense officials told
Foreign Policy Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a State (polity), state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, includ ...
that U.S. personnel recently counted Pakistan's F-16s and found none missing. A Pentagon spokesman said they were not aware of any count being conducted, but the Pentagon did not put out any official statement on the matter. However, there have been no leaks countering the Foreign Policy report. India released the electronic footage of aerial engagement to re-assert its claims. Pakistani officials rejected radar images released by India. Stand off followed with intermittent firings across the LoC. Months later on 8 October, India on its Air Force Day, flew the same
Su-30MKI The Sukhoi Su-30MKI (NATO reporting name: Flanker-H) is a two-seater, twinjet multirole air superiority fighter developed by Russian aircraft manufacturer Sukhoi and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for th ...
"Avenger 1" aircraft in a
flypast ''FlyPast'' is an aircraft magazine, published monthly, edited by Tom Allett, Steve Beebee and Jamie Ewan. History and profile The magazine started as a bi-monthly edition in May/June 1981 and its first editor was the late Mike Twite. It is ow ...
that Pakistan had claimed it had shot down during the air battle on 27 February. * 2020–2021 India–Pakistan border Incidents: The standoff intensified when a major exchange of gunfire and shelling erupted between
Indian Indian or Indians may refer to: Associated with India * of or related to India ** Indian people ** Indian diaspora ** Languages of India ** Indian English, a dialect of the English language ** Indian cuisine Associated with indigenous peoples o ...
and Pakistani troops in November 2020 along the Line of Control which left at least 22 dead, including 11 civilians. Pakistan's foreign ministry said India had violated the ceasefire at least 2,729 times in 2020 which killed 21 Pakistani civilians and seriously injured 206 others. In February 2021, India and Pakistan released a joint statement, stating that after discussions over established hotlines, the two sides agreed to "strict observance" of all peace and ceasefire agreements with effect from midnight of 25 February 2021. Both sides agreed existing forms of hotline contact and border flag meetings would be utilized to resolve any future misunderstanding. *
2025 India–Pakistan crisis Following the Pahalgam terrorist attack on 22 April 2025, a crisis emerged between India and Pakistan, sparked by the killing of 25 Indian tourists by the militants in Kashmir. The Resistance Front (TRF) initially claimed responsibility for t ...
: The crisis began on 23 April 2025, as an Islamic terrorist attack took place in the
Baisaran Valley Baisaran Valley is a meadow located about 5–7 km from Pahalgam in the Anantnag district of the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Situated at an altitude of around , it is surrounded by dense pine forests and the Pir Panjal ran ...
of
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory since 2019 * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered by India as a state from 1952 to 2019 * Jammu and Kashmir (prin ...
. In the attack 25 Hindu tourists, one Christian tourist and one local Muslim were killed along with over 20 others injured.
The Resistance Front The Resistance Front (TRF) is an Islamist militant organisation actively engaged in the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, and designated as a terrorist organization by India. The group is responsible for attacks on and killings of civilians, in ...
(TRF), a splinter group linked to
Lashkar-e-Taiba Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) is a Pakistani Islamism, Islamist militant organization driven by a Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist ideology. The organisation's primary stated objective is to merge the whole of Kashmir with Pakistan. It was founded in 19 ...
—a Pakistan-based organization designated as a
terrorist group Several national governments and two international organizations have created lists of organizations that they designate as terrorist. The following list of designated terrorist groups lists groups designated as terrorist by current and former ...
by the UN—initially claimed responsibility for the attack. In response, India accused Pakistan of backing cross-border terrorism. India then expelled Pakistani diplomats and called back its diplomats, suspended visas, closed borders, and suspended the
Indus Waters Treaty The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a water-distribution treaty between India and Pakistan, arranged and negotiated by the World Bank, to use the water available in the Indus River and its tributaries. It was signed in Karachi on 19 September 196 ...
. Pakistan denied the allegations and responded with trade restrictions, closure of airspace and border crossings, and suspension of the
Simla Agreement The Simla Agreement, also spelled Shimla Agreement, was a peace treaty signed between India and Pakistan on 2 July 1972 in Shimla, the capital of Himachal Pradesh. It followed the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which began after India interv ...
. India's
Cabinet Committee on Security The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is a cabinet committee of the Government of India that discusses, debates and is the final decision-making body on senior appointments in the national security apparatus, defence policy and expenditure, and ...
(CCS) also strongly urged Indian citizens to avoid traveling to Pakistan, and called on those currently in the country to return at the earliest opportunity.


Proxy wars

*
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir The insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, also known as the Kashmir insurgency, is an ongoing separatist militant insurgency against the Indian administration in Jammu and Kashmir, a territory constituting the southwestern portion of the larger ...
(1989–present): An insurgency in Kashmir has been a cause for heightened tensions. India has also accused Pakistan-backed militant groups of executing several terrorist attacks across India. *
Insurgency in Balochistan The insurgency in Balochistan () is an ongoing insurgency by Baloch separatist insurgents and various Islamist militant groups against the governments of Iran in the province of Sistan and Baluchestan and Pakistan in the province of Baloch ...
(1948–present): An insurgency in Balochistan province of Pakistan has also caused tensions recently. Pakistan has accused India of causing the insurgency with the help of ousted Baloch leaders, militant groups and terrorist organizations like the
Balochistan Liberation Army The Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) is a Baloch ethnonationalist militant organization based in the Balochistan region. Operating primarily from safe havens scattered across southern Afghanistan, BLA perpetrates attacks in neighboring Paki ...
. According to Pakistani officials these militants are trained in neighboring Afghanistan. In 2016, Pakistan alleged that an Indian spy
Kulbhushan Jadhav Kulbhushan Sudhir Jadhav (born 16 April 1970; also spelled Kulbhushan Yadav, alleged alias Hussain Mubarak Patel) is an Indian national who has been incarcerated in Pakistan since 2016. The Pakistani government alleges that he is a spy for th ...
was arrested by Pakistani forces during a counter-intelligence operation in Balochistan. *
Afghan conflict The Afghan conflict (; ) is a term that refers to the series of events that have kept Afghanistan in a near-continuous state of armed conflict since the 1970s. Early instability followed the collapse of the Kingdom of Afghanistan in the large ...
(1978–present): India and Pakistan had long been supporting opposing sides during the wars of Afghanistan, including during the
Soviet–Afghan War The Soviet–Afghan War took place in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan from December 1979 to February 1989. Marking the beginning of the 46-year-long Afghan conflict, it saw the Soviet Union and the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic o ...
and the civil wars from 1989 to 2001. In 2006, Pakistan has been accused by India for its involvement in terrorism in Afghanistan. In 2020, Pakistan accused India of trying to derail peace negotiations to end the
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) The war in Afghanistan was a prolonged armed conflict lasting from 2001 to 2021. It began with United States invasion of Afghanistan, the invasion by a Participants in Operation Enduring Freedom, United States-led coalition under the name Oper ...
.


Risk of nuclear conflict

The
nuclear conflict Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: * Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics * Nuclear space *Nuclea ...
between both countries is of passive strategic nature with
nuclear doctrine of Pakistan The Nuclear doctrine of Pakistan is a theoretical concept of military strategy that promotes deterrence by guaranteeing an immediate " massive retaliation" to an aggressive attack against the state. Pakistan's foreign minister Shamshad Ahmad ha ...
stating a first strike policy, although the strike would only be initiated if and only if, the Pakistan Armed Forces are unable to halt an invasion (as for example in 1971 war) or a nuclear strike is launched against Pakistan, whereas India has a declared
policy Policy is a deliberate system of guidelines to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. A policy is a statement of intent and is implemented as a procedure or protocol. Policies are generally adopted by a governance body within an or ...
of
no first use In nuclear ethics and deterrence theory, no first use (NFU) refers to a type of pledge or policy wherein a nuclear power formally refrains from the use of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in warfare, except for as a se ...
. According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal ''
Nature Food ''Nature Food'' is a monthly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Nature Portfolio. It was established in 2020. The editor-in-chief is Anne Mullen. Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed in: *Science Citation Index ...
'' in August 2022, a nuclear war between India and Pakistan could kill more than 2 billion indirectly by
starvation Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, de ...
during a
nuclear winter Nuclear winter is a severe and prolonged anti-greenhouse effect, global climatic cooling effect that is hypothesized to occur after widespread firestorms following a large-scale Nuclear warfare, nuclear war. The hypothesis is based on the fact ...
. *
Pokhran-I Smiling Buddha ( MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the code name of India's first successful nuclear weapon test on 18 May 1974. The nuclear fission bomb was detonated in the Pokhran Test Range of the Indian Army in Rajasthan. As per the United ...
(
Smiling Buddha Smiling Buddha (Ministry of External Affairs (India), MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the code name of India's first successful Nuclear weapons testing, nuclear weapon test on 18 May 1974. The nuclear fission bomb was detonated in the Pokhran#P ...
): On 18 May 1974 India detonated an 8-
kiloton TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. A ton of TNT equivalent is a unit of energy defined by convention to be (). It is the approximate energy released in the det ...
nuclear device at
Pokhran Test Range Pokhran (official spelling Pokaran; ) is a town and a municipality located 112 km east of Jaisalmer city in the Jaisalmer district of the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is situated in the Thar Desert region. Surrounded by rocks, sand and ...
, becoming the first nation to become nuclear capable outside the five permanent members of
United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...
as well as dragging Pakistan along with it into a
nuclear arms race The nuclear arms race was an arms race competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this same period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuc ...
. Pakistani prime minister
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister and politician who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan, prime minister of Pakistan from 19 ...
had promised in 1965 that "if India builds the bomb, we will eat grass or leaves, even go hungry, but we will get one of our own", and India's Pokhran-I test spurred the Pakistani nuclear weapons program to greater efforts. The
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) () is a federally funded independent governmental agency, concerned with research and development of nuclear power, promotion of nuclear science, energy conservation and the peaceful use of nuclear techn ...
(PAEC) Chairman
Munir Ahmed Khan Munir Ahmad Khan (; 20 May 1926 – 22 April 1999), , was a Pakistani nuclear engineer who is credited, among others, with being the "father of the atomic bomb program" of Pakistan for their leading role in developing their nation's nuclear wea ...
said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb. * Kirana-I: In the 1980s a series of 24 different cold tests were conducted by PAEC, led by chairman Munir Ahmad Khan under extreme secrecy. The tunnels at
Kirana Hills The Kirana Hills Site is an extensive rocky mountain range and a reservation of the Ministry of Defense (MoD) and nuclear arsenal storage location of Pakistan army, located in the Sargodha District in Punjab, Pakistan. Known locally as "Black Mo ...
, Sargodha, are reported to have been bored after the Chagai nuclear test sites, it is widely believed that the tunnels were constructed sometime between 1979 and 1983. As in Chagai, the tunnels at Kirana Hills had been bored and then sealed and this task was also undertaken by PAEC's DTD. Later due to excessive US intelligence and satellite focus on the Kirana Hills site, it was abandoned and nuclear weapons testing was shifted to the
Kala Chitta Range Kala Chitta Range (in Punjabi and ''Kālā Chiṭṭā'') is a mountain range in the Attock District of Punjab, Pakistan. "Kala" and "Chitta" are Punjabi words, meaning "black" and "white", respectively. The range thrusts eastward across the ...
. *
Pokhran-II Pokhran-II (''Operation Shakti'') was a series of five nuclear weapon tests conducted by India in May 1998. The bombs were detonated at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted ...
(
Operation Shakti Pokhran-II (''Operation Shakti'') was a series of five nuclear weapon tests conducted by India in May 1998. The bombs were detonated at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted ...
): On 11 May 1998 India detonated another five nuclear devices at
Pokhran Test Range Pokhran (official spelling Pokaran; ) is a town and a municipality located 112 km east of Jaisalmer city in the Jaisalmer district of the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is situated in the Thar Desert region. Surrounded by rocks, sand and ...
. With jubilation and large scale approval from the Indian society came International sanctions as a reaction to this test, the most vehement reaction of all coming from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a stern statement claiming that India was instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Pakistan vowed to match India's nuclear capability with statements like: "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent". *
Chagai-I Chagai-I is the code name of five simultaneous underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15 hrs Pakistan Standard Time, PKT on 28 May 1998. The tests were performed at Ras Koh Hills in the Chagai District of Balochistan Province. C ...
: ( Youm-e-Takbir) Within half a month of
Pokhran-II Pokhran-II (''Operation Shakti'') was a series of five nuclear weapon tests conducted by India in May 1998. The bombs were detonated at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted ...
, on 28 May 1998 Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices to reciprocate India in the
nuclear arms race The nuclear arms race was an arms race competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this same period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuc ...
. The Pakistani public, like the Indian, reacted with a celebration and a heightened sense of
nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...
for responding to India in kind and becoming the only Muslim nuclear power. The day was later given the title Youm-e-Takbir to further proclaim such. *
Chagai-II Chagai-II is the codename assigned to the second atomic test conducted by Pakistan, carried out on 30 May 1998 in the Kharan Desert in Balochistan Province of Pakistan. ''Chagai-II'' took place two days after Pakistan's first successful te ...
: Two days later, on 30 May 1998, Pakistan detonated a sixth nuclear device completing its own series of underground tests with this being the last the two nations have carried out to date.


Annual celebrations

The nations of South Asia observe national and armed forces-specific days which originate from conflicts between India and Pakistan as follows: * 28 May (since 1998) as Youm-e-Takbir (The day of Greatness) in Pakistan. * 26 July (since 1999) as
Kargil Vijay Diwas Kargil Vijay Diwas () is celebrated every year on 26 of July in India, to observe India's victory over Pakistan in the Kargil War for ousting Pakistani Forces from their occupied positions on the mountain tops of Northern Kargil District in Ladak ...
(Kargil Victory Day) in India. * 6 September (since 1965) as
Defence Day Defence Day ( ALA-LC: ) is celebrated in Pakistan as a national day to commemorate the sacrifices made by Pakistani soldiers in defending its borders.Taha SiddiquiDear Pakistanis, this Defence Day, please stop celebrating hate Al Jazeera, 6 ...
(Youm-e-Difa) in Pakistan. * 7 September (since 1965) as
Air Force Day Air Force Day or Day of the Air Force is observed by several nations with an armed forces as a military holiday to recognize their country's air force. These holidays often hold the same status as any military's Armed Forces Day. By country A ...
(Youm-e-Fizaya) in Pakistan. * 8 September (since 1965) as
Victory Day Victory Day is a commonly used name for public holidays in various countries, where it commemorates a nation's triumph over a hostile force in a war or the liberation of a country from hostile occupation. In many cases, multiple countries may ob ...
/
Navy Day Several nations observe or have observed a Navy Day to recognize their navy. By country Argentina The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 against the Spanish fleet in the action of 14 ...
(Youm-e-Bahr'ya) in Pakistan. * 4 December (since 1971) as
Navy Day Several nations observe or have observed a Navy Day to recognize their navy. By country Argentina The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 against the Spanish fleet in the action of 14 ...
in India. * 16 December (since 1971) as Vijay Diwas (Victory Day) in India. * 16 December (since 1971) as Bijoy Dibosh (Victory Day) in Bangladesh.


Involvement of other nations

: *The USSR remained neutral during the 1965 war and played a pivotal role in negotiating the peace agreement between India and Pakistan. *The Soviet Union provided diplomatic and military assistance to India during the 1971 war. In response to the US and UK's deployment of the aircraft carriers and , Moscow sent nuclear submarines and warships with anti-ship missiles in the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea () is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and ...
and
Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
, respectively. : *The US had not given any military aid to Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. *The United States provided diplomatic and military support to Pakistan during the 1971 war by sending into the Indian Ocean. *The United States did not support Pakistan during the Kargil War, and successfully pressured the Pakistani administration to end hostilities. : *China had helped Pakistan in various wars with diplomatic support.Pakistan and India Play With Nuclear Fire By Jonathan Power
The Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research
: *Russia maintained a non-belligerent policy for both sides while selling arms and other weapon systems to India. Russia helped negotiate peace in 2001–02 and helped divert the 2008 crisis.


In popular culture

These wars have provided source material for both Indian and Pakistani film and television dramatists, who have adapted events of the war for the purposes of drama and to please target audiences in their nations.


Indian films

* '' Hindustan Ki Kasam'', a 1973
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
war film War film is a film genre concerned with warfare, typically about navy, naval, air force, air, or army, land battles, with combat scenes central to the drama. It has been strongly associated with the 20th century. The fateful nature of battle s ...
based on Operation Cactus Lilly of the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, directed by Chetan Anand. * ''
Aakraman ''Aakraman'' () is a 1975 Indian Hindi language war film, produced by Jagdish Kumar and directed by J. Om Prakash. The war film stars Ashok Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, Rekha, Rakesh Roshan, Farida Jalal, Sujit Kumar, Asrani, Keshto Mukherjee, Mumtaz ...
'', a 1975 Hindi war film based on the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by
J. Om Prakash Jay Om Prakash (24 January 1926 – 7 August 2019) was an Indian Bollywood film producer and director. He directed films like ''Aap Ki Kasam'' (1974), ''Aakraman'', ''Aashiq Hoon Baharon Ka'', ''Aakhir Kyon?'' (1985) with Rajesh Khanna as the l ...
. * '' Vijeta'', a 1982 Hindi film based on the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, produced by
Shashi Kapoor Shashi Kapoor (pronounced əʃi kəpuːɾ born Balbir Raj Kapoor; 18 March 1938 – 4 December 2017) was an Indian actor and producer known primarily for his work in Hindi films. He is considered as one of the greatest and most successful acto ...
and directed by
Govind Nihalani Govind Nihalani (born 19 December 1940) is an Indian film director, cinematographer, screenwriter and producer, known for his works in Hindi cinema, particularly the movement of parallel cinema. He has been the recipient of six National Film Aw ...
. * ''
Param Vir Chakra The Param Vir Chakra (PVC) is India's highest Awards and Decorations of the Indian Armed Forces, military decoration, awarded for displaying distinguished acts of valour during wartime. Param Vir Chakra translates roughly as the "Wheel of Supre ...
'', a 1995 Hindi film based on Indo-Pakistani War, directed by Ashok Kaul. * ''
Border Borders are generally defined as geography, geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by polity, political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other administrative divisio ...
'', a 1997 Hindi war film based on the
Battle of Longewala The Battle of Longewala (4–7 December 1971) was one of the first major engagements in the western sector during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, fought between assaulting Pakistani forces and Indian defenders at the Indian border post of Long ...
of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by J.P.Dutta. * ''
LOC Kargil ''LOC Kargil'' is a 2003 Indian Hindi-language historical war film based on the Kargil War fought between India and Pakistan, produced and directed by J. P. Dutta under his banner "J. P. Films". The film features an ensemble cast of Bollywoo ...
'', a 2003 Hindi war film based on the
Kargil War The Kargil War, was fought between India and Pakistan from May to July 1999 in the Kargil district of Ladakh, then part of the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (state), Jammu and Kashmir and along the Line of Control (LoC). In In ...
, directed by J. P. Dutta. * ''
Deewaar ''Deewaar'' ( ''The Wall'') is a 1975 Indian action crime film written by Salim–Javed and directed by Yash Chopra. The film stars Shashi Kapoor and Amitabh Bachchan, alongside an ensemble cast of Neetu Singh, Nirupa Roy, Parveen Babi, ...
'', a 2004 Hindi film starring
Amitabh Bachchan Amitabh Bachchan (; 11 October 1942) is an Indian actor who works in Hindi cinema. He is often considered one of the greatest, most accomplished and commercially successful actors in the history of Indian cinema.* * * * * With a cinemati ...
based on the
POW POW is "prisoner of war", a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. POW or pow may also refer to: Music * P.O.W (Bullet for My Valentine song), "P.O.W" (Bull ...
of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by
Milan Luthria Milan Arjun Luthria is an Indian film director who works in Bollywood, Hindi films. He is best known as the director of Ajay Devgan ''Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai'' (2010). Personal life Milan is the biological son of Raj Khosla. He was born o ...
. * '' Lakshya'', a 2004 Hindi film partially based on the events of the Kargil War, directed by
Farhan Akhtar Farhan Akhtar (born 9 January 1974) is an Indian actor, filmmaker and singer who works in Hindi films. Born to screenwriters Javed Akhtar and Honey Irani, he established the production company Excel Entertainment, along with Ritesh Sidhwa ...
. * ''
1971 * The year 1971 had three partial solar eclipses (Solar eclipse of February 25, 1971, February 25, Solar eclipse of July 22, 1971, July 22 and Solar eclipse of August 20, 1971, August 20) and two total lunar eclipses (February 1971 lunar eclip ...
'', 2007 Hindi war film based on a true story of prisoners of war after the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, directed by Amrit Sagar. * ''
Kurukshetra Kurukshetra () is a city and administrative headquarters of Kurukshetra district in the Indian state of Haryana. It is also known as Dharmakshetra ("Realm of duty") and as the "Land of the Bhagavad Gita". Legends According to the Puranas ...
'', a 2008 Malayalam film starring
Mohanlal Mohanlal Viswanathan (; born 21 May 1960), known mononymously as Mohanlal, is an Indian actor and filmmaker who predominantly works in Malayalam cinema, Malayalam cinema besides also having sporadically appeared in Tamil cinema, Tamil, Hin ...
based on Kargil War, directed by
Major Ravi Major A. K. Raveendran SM (born 13 June 1958) is a retired officer of the Indian Army, former National Security Guard commando, film actor and film director predominantly works in Malayalam cinema and some films in Tamil and Hindi. He was aw ...
. * '' Tango Charlie'', a 2005 Hindi film starring
Ajay Devgan Vishal Veeru Devgan (born 2 April 1969), known professionally as Ajay Devgn, is an Indian actor, film director, and producer. One of the most prolific actors of Hindi cinema, Devgn has appeared in over 100 films and has won numerous accola ...
, and
Bobby Deol Vijay Singh Deol (born 27 January 1969), better known by his screen name Bobby Deol, is an Indian actor who primarily works in Hindi cinema. A member of the List of Hindi film families#Deol family, Deol family, he is the younger son of actor Dha ...
based on Kargil Conflict, directed by
Mani Shankar Mani Shankar is an Indian film director known for his works in Hindi cinema. He directed works such as ''16 December'', one of the highest-grossing films of 2002, and '' Tango Charlie'', which was screened in several International Film Festiva ...
. * ''
The Ghazi Attack ''Ghazi'' is a 2017 Indian war film written and directed by Sankalp Reddy. The film is produced in the Telugu cinema, Telugu film industry, and is shot simultaneously in Telugu language, Telugu and Hindi languages, with the latter titled ''The G ...
'', a 2017
Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of South India ** Telugu literature, is the body of works written in the Telugu language. * Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Tel ...
and
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
bilingual film based on the sinking of . * '' 1971: Beyond Borders'', a 2017 Malayalam film, directed by Major Ravi. * ''
Raazi ''Raazi'' () is a 2018 Indian Hindi-language spy thriller film directed by Meghna Gulzar and produced by Vineet Jain, Karan Johar, Hiroo Yash Johar and Apoorva Mehta under the banners of Junglee Pictures and Dharma Productions. It stars Al ...
'', a 2018
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
film about an Indian spy during the Indo Pakistan war of 1971, directed by
Meghna Gulzar Meghna Gulzar is an Indian writer, director and producer. She is best known for directing critically acclaimed films; '' Talvar'' (2015) and '' Raazi'' (2018). Born to Gulzar and actress Raakhee, Gulzar joined her father as an assistant to ...
* '' Uri: The Surgical Strike'', a 2019
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
film about India's surgical strike into the Pakistani base camps after the Uri incident in 2016.


Pakistani films, miniseries and dramas

* ''
Angaar Waadi ''Angar Wadi'' () is a Pakistani television play/drama. It was aired by PTV in 1994, and comprises 18 episodes. It was directed by Tariq Mairaj, written, and produced by Abdul Rauf Khalid. Plot ''Captain Hamza'' is an Indian Army Captain and ...
'', an
Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...
drama serial based on the
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
conflict, directed by
Rauf Khalid Abdul Rauf Khalid (; 19 December 1957 – 24 November 2011) was a Pakistani actor, filmmaker, screenwriter, and artist. Early life and career Rauf Khalid, while still a college student, began writing for Radio Pakistan. An ex-serviceman ...
* '' Laag'', an Urdu drama serial based on the Kashmir conflict, directed by Rauf Khalid * '' PNS Ghazi (Shaheed)'', an Urdu drama based on
sinking of PNS Ghazi PNS/M ''Ghazi (S–130)'' (previously USS ''Diablo'' (SS-479); reporting name: ''Ghazi''), , was a diesel-electric submarine, the first fast-attack submarine in the Pakistan Navy. She was leased from the United States Navy in 1963. She se ...
, ISPR * ''
Alpha Bravo Charlie ''Alpha Bravo Charlie'' (Urdu: الفا براوو چارلی) is an action and thriller Pakistani drama, produced by ISPR and directed by Pakistani drama and film director Shoaib Mansoor. It is a sequel to the 1991 TV series ''Sunehray Din' ...
'', an Urdu drama serial based on three different aspects of
Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army (, ), commonly known as the Pak Army (), is the Land warfare, land service branch and the largest component of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The president of Pakistan is the Commander-in-chief, supreme commander of the army. The ...
's involvement in action, directed by
Shoaib Mansoor Shoaib Mansoor (; born 4 February 1951 Karachi) is a Pakistani television and film director, writer, producer, lyricist and musician of Mahajir (Pakistan), Muhajir origin. Active in the Television in Pakistan, television industry since 1976, w ...
* ''
Sipahi Maqbool Hussain Sipahi Maqbool Hussain (, ) is a Pakistani television series, aired in April 2008 on TV One and Pakistan Television (PTV). The series was co-produced by Haider Imam Rizvi and Brig Syed Mujtaba Tirmizi from Inter Services Public Relations and ...
'', an Urdu drama serial based on a 1965 war
POW POW is "prisoner of war", a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. POW or pow may also refer to: Music * P.O.W (Bullet for My Valentine song), "P.O.W" (Bull ...
, directed by Haider Imam Rizvi


See also

*
United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan The United Nations has played an advisory role in maintaining peace and order in the Kashmir region soon after Indian Independence Act 1947, the independence and partition of British India into the dominions of Dominion of Pakistan, Pakistan and ...
*
Democracy in India India is the world's most populous democracy. Elections in the country started with the 1951–52 Indian general election. India was among the first post-colonial nations to adopt universal adult franchise, granting all adult citizens equal vot ...
*
Democracy in Pakistan Politics in Pakistan refers to the ideologies and systems by which Pakistan was established in 1947. As envisaged by the nation's founding father, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan is a nation-state, constitutionally a democratic parliamentary repu ...
*
India–Pakistan relations India and Pakistan have a complex and largely hostile relationship that is rooted in a multitude of historical and political events, most notably the Partition of India, partition of British India in August 1947. Two years after World War II, t ...
* Patriotic hacking *
List of wars involving India This is a list of known wars, conflicts, battles/sieges, missions and operations involving former kingdoms and states in the Indian subcontinent and the modern day Republic of India as well as its predecessors. Ancient India (c. 15th to 1s ...
*
List of wars involving Pakistan Since its establishment in 1947, Pakistan has been involved in numerous armed conflicts both locally and around the world. The main focus of its military operations have both historically and currently been on neighbouring India— against whom ...
* Two-nation theory


Notes


References


Bibliography

* Chaudhuri, Rudra. "‘Just Another Border Incident’: The Rann of Kutch and the 1965 India–Pakistan War." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 42.5 (2019): 654-676
online
* Cheema, Musarat Javed. "Pakistan–India conflict with special reference to Kashmir." ''South Asian Studies'' 30.1 (2020)
online
* Cloughley, Brian. ''A history of the Pakistan army: wars and insurrections'' (Simon and Schuster, 2016). * Dixit, J. N. ''India-Pakistan in War & Peace'' (2002). * * Impiani, Dwi. "Escalation of Military Conflict between India and Pakistan in the Post Lahore Declaration (1999–2019): Security Dilemma Perspective." ''Global: Jurnal Politik Internasional'' 21.2 (2019): 219–241
online
* Indurthy, Rathnam. ''India–Pakistan wars and the Kashmir crisis'' (Routledge India, 2019). * Kaura, Vinay. "India’s Pakistan policy: from 2016 ‘surgical strike’ to 2019 Balakot ‘airstrike’." ''The Round Table'' 109.3 (2020): 277–287
online
* Lyon, Peter. ''Conflict between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia'' (2008). * Mohan, Surinder. ''Complex Rivalry: The Dynamics of India-Pakistan Conflict'' (University of Michigan Press, 2022). * Siddiqa, Ayesha. ''Military Inc.: inside Pakistan’s military economy'' (Penguin Random House India, 2017). * Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose, eds. ''War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh'' (1991) *


Primary sources

*


External links


Nuclear Proliferation in India and Pakistan
from th
Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
{{Pakistan topics History of the Republic of India Post-independence history of Pakistan Indo-Pakistan Indo-Pakistan