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al-Haj Idris Alooma (born Idris ibn Ali) was ''mai'' (ruler) of the
Kanem–Bornu Empire The Kanem–Bornu Empire was an empire based around Lake Chad that once ruled areas which are now part of Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Libya, Algeria, Sudan, and Chad. The empire was sustained by the prosperous trans-Saharan trade and was one of the ...
(r. 1570/1580–1603), covering parts of
Chad Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North Africa, North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to Chad–Libya border, the north, Sudan to Chad–Sudan border, the east, the Central Afric ...
,
Cameroon Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon, is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the R ...
,
Niger Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state Geography of Niger#Political geography, bordered by Libya to the Libya–Niger border, north-east, Chad to the Chad–Niger border, east ...
and
Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...
. His achievements are primarily chronicled by Ahmad bin Fartuwa, his chief
Imam Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
. His reign marked the end of the Kanem civil wars within the state, reuniting N'jimi, the former capital, under Sayfawa control. Furthermore, he introduced significant legal reforms based on
Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
, establishing ''
qadi A qadi (; ) is the magistrate or judge of a Sharia court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and minors, and supervision and auditing of public works. History The term '' was in use from ...
'' courts that operated independently from the executive branch. He was credited with leading the empire to what is often regarded as its zenith during the late 16th-century and early 17th-century. Bornu faced instability before his reign, including famines, raids from neighbours, and internal conflicts. By the conclusion of his rule, he had successfully expanded Bornu's influence over vast territories, including the majority of
Hausaland Hausa Kingdoms, also known as Hausa Kingdom or Hausaland, was a collection of states ruled by the Hausa people, before the Fulani jihads. It was situated between the Niger River and Lake Chad (modern day northern Nigeria). Hausaland lay between ...
, the
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym, depending on variety: ''Imuhaɣ'', ''Imušaɣ'', ''Imašeɣăn'' or ''Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group, traditionally nomadic pastoralists, who principally inhabit th ...
of Aïr, the Tebu of
Bilma Bilma is an oasis town and commune in north east Niger with, as of the 2012 census, a total population of 4,016 people. It lies protected from the desert dunes under the Kaouar Cliffs and is the largest town along the Kaouar escarpment. It ...
,
Tibesti The Tibesti Mountains are a mountain range in the central Sahara, primarily located in the extreme north of Chad, with a small portion located in southern Libya. The highest peak in the range, Emi Koussi, lies to the south at a height of and ...
, and even the
Bulala The Bulala are a Muslim people that live around Lake Fitri who are of Maguemi (also known as Maguia) origin and the Bulala of Nguedjem fraction shares the same ancestor with the Toubou (Goran) of Kara (also known by the Arabic pronunciation, Kred ...
of Kanem. Of particular note is the acquisition of Aïr and Bilma, which granted Bornu strategic control over the central Saharan trade routes. This development significantly contributed to the prosperity of Idris Alooma and his successors, enabling them to foster improved diplomatic relations with
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
n powers, notably
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis (from , meaning "three cities") may refer to: Places Greece *Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in the Pelasgiotis district, Thessaly, near Larissa ...
.  During the late 16th-century, the
Ottoman Caliphate The Ottoman Caliphate () was the claim of the heads of the Turkish Ottoman dynasty, rulers of the Ottoman Empire, to be the caliphs of Islam during the Late Middle Ages, late medieval and Early Modern period, early modern era. Ottoman rulers ...
's expansion towards
Fezzan Fezzan ( , ; ; ; ) is the southwestern region of modern Libya. It is largely desert, but broken by mountains, uplands, and dry river valleys (wadis) in the north, where oases enable ancient towns and villages to survive deep in the otherwise in ...
, an important trade hub in the trans-Saharan trade, became a concern for Bornu. Alooma sought negotiations with
Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...
to regain control of Fezzan which
Sultan Murad III Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used ...
declined, but urged amicable relations with Bornu. As tensions rose, Bornu sought aid from Morocco's
Ahmad al-Mansur Ahmad al-Mansur (; 1549 – 25 August 1603), also known by the nickname al-Dhahabī () was the Saadi Sultanate, Saadi Sultan of Morocco from 1578 to his death in 1603, the sixth and most famous of all rulers of the Saadis. Ahmad al-Mansur was an ...
, potentially to counter Ottoman control. Though al-Mansur agreed conditionally, no historical evidence shows his actual support. Shortly after Bornu's final envoy to Morocco, between 1582–1583 and 1585, the entire Ottoman garrison in Fezzan was slaughtered, leading to the return of the Awlad Muhammad dynasty. Historian Dr. Rémi Dewière (
School of Oriental and African Studies The School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS University of London; ) is a public research university in London, England, and a member institution of the federal University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS is located in the Bloomsbury area ...
, University of London) suggests that Alooma strategically exploited the rivalry between Morocco and the Ottoman Empire to reclaim Fezzan.


Early life

Idris's mother, Amsa Aliram, was likely a daughter of a Mai of the
Bulala The Bulala are a Muslim people that live around Lake Fitri who are of Maguemi (also known as Maguia) origin and the Bulala of Nguedjem fraction shares the same ancestor with the Toubou (Goran) of Kara (also known by the Arabic pronunciation, Kred ...
. She faced significant challenges in ensuring his survival during the reigns of
Dunama VI Muhammad Dunama VI Muhammad (Dunama Muḥammad bin Muḥammad), also called Dunama Ghamarami, was the '' mai'' of the Kanem–Bornu Empire in 1546–1563. Life Dunama Muhammad was the son of Muhammad VI Aminami and Fanna. He succeeded his uncle Ali II ...
(r. 1546–1563), who succeeded Ali II Zainami (Idris's father) due to there being no adult male heirs, and Abdullah IV (r. 1563–1570), Dunama's son who followed him as Mai. Idris, as an infant, lost his father, Ali II Zainami (r. 1544–1546), and was raised by Magira (
Queen Mother A queen mother is a former queen, often a queen dowager, who is the mother of the monarch, reigning monarch. The term has been used in English since the early 1560s. It arises in hereditary monarchy, hereditary monarchies in Europe and is also ...
) Aisa Kili N'girmaramma. In order to hide his existence from the Mais, Aisa constructed a brick palace for him near the
River Yo A river is a natural stream of fresh water that flows on land or inside caves towards another body of water at a lower elevation, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. A river may run dry before reaching the end of its course if it run ...
in Gambaru (in modern-day
Yunusari Yunusari is a Local Government Areas of Nigeria, Local Government Area in Yobe State, Nigeria. It has its headquarters in the town of Kanamma (or Kanama) in the north-east of the area on the Burun Gana River at . It shares a border in the north ...
), which was located away from Bornu's capital, N'gazargamu.


Reign

The reign of Idris Alooma is the best documented of all of the Sayfawa rulers owing to his chief
Imam Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
, Ahmad ibn Fartuwa, who recorded the first twelve years of his reign. However, the remaining twenty-one years is practically unknown. Before his ascension, Bornu was in a delicate and unstable period. The state was just leaving a short period during which it was ruled by ''Magira'' Aisa. Bornu had suffered long famines in the reigns of his two predecessors. It was being raided by its neighbors on all sides. Furthermore, the Kanem wars with the
Bulala The Bulala are a Muslim people that live around Lake Fitri who are of Maguemi (also known as Maguia) origin and the Bulala of Nguedjem fraction shares the same ancestor with the Toubou (Goran) of Kara (also known by the Arabic pronunciation, Kred ...
were still ongoing to the east. Even within Bornu itself, the Sao, Ngizim and the numerous lesser groups who remained unislamised had not yet been fully pacified. Alooma introduced a number of legal and administrative reforms based on
Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
. He established ''
qadi A qadi (; ) is the magistrate or judge of a Sharia court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and minors, and supervision and auditing of public works. History The term '' was in use from ...
'' courts to oversee legal proceedings, effectively separating the judiciary from the executive branch. Prior to his rule, only the ruling class and a number of clerical families had been Muslims and during the century-long decline of the empire, the significance of the religion had diminished. It was noted by Ibn Fartua that, during Alooma's reign, most of the Bornu notables converted to Islam. Despite his attempts, however, there is no convincing evidence that Islamic law became Bornu's state law, nor did it completely replace non-Islamic beliefs and practices in the state according to historian Mervyn Hiskett. Alooma also sponsored the construction of numerous mosques and introduced the use of fired red mud bricks in these constructions. The mud bricks replaced the more temporary reeds.  Furthermore, he made at least two pilgrimages to Mecca, where he arranged for the establishment of a hostel to be used by
pilgrim The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , , "little star", is a typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a heraldic star. Computer scientists and mathematicians often vocalize it as ...
s from his empire and a date grove. Government revenue came from tribute (or
booty Booty most commonly refers to: *Booty (loot), goods or treasure seized by force *"Booty", a slang term for the buttocks Booty may also refer to: Music * Booty music (also known as Miami bass or booty bass), a subgenre of hip hop * "Booty" (Jenn ...
if the recalcitrant people had to be conquered) and duties on and participation in
trade Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market. Traders generally negotiate through a medium of cr ...
. Unlike
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
, the Chadian region did not have
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
. Still, it was central to one of the most convenient routes across the
Sahara The Sahara (, ) is a desert spanning across North Africa. With an area of , it is the largest hot desert in the world and the list of deserts by area, third-largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica and the northern Ar ...
desert. Between
Lake Chad Lake Chad (, Kanuri language, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', ) is an endorheic freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of . ...
and
Fezzan Fezzan ( , ; ; ; ) is the southwestern region of modern Libya. It is largely desert, but broken by mountains, uplands, and dry river valleys (wadis) in the north, where oases enable ancient towns and villages to survive deep in the otherwise in ...
lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and
oases In ecology, an oasis (; : oases ) is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environmentMediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
. Many products were sent north, including
natron Natron is a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate ( Na2CO3·10H2O, a kind of soda ash) and around 17% sodium bicarbonate (also called baking soda, NaHCO3) along with small quantities of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate. ...
(
sodium carbonate Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda, soda ash, sal soda, and soda crystals) is the inorganic compound with the formula and its various hydrates. All forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield alkaline solutions in water ...
),
cotton Cotton (), first recorded in ancient India, is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus '' Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure ...
,
kola nut The kola nut ( Yoruba: ''obi'', Dagbani: ''guli'', Hausa: goro, Igbo: ''ọjị'', Sängö: ''gôro,'' Swahili: ''mukezu'') is the seed of certain species of plant of the genus ''Cola'', placed formerly in the cocoa family Sterculiaceae and ...
s,
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
,
ostrich Ostriches are large flightless birds. Two living species are recognised, the common ostrich, native to large parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and the Somali ostrich, native to the Horn of Africa. They are the heaviest and largest living birds, w ...
feathers,
perfume Perfume (, ) is a mixture of fragrance, fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds (fragrances), Fixative (perfumery), fixatives and solvents, usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agre ...
,
wax Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are lipophilic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C (104 °F), melting to give lo ...
, and hides, but the most profitable trade was in
slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
. Imports included
salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
,
horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 mi ...
s,
silk Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...
,
glass Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline solid, non-crystalline) solid. Because it is often transparency and translucency, transparent and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in window pane ...
, muskets, and
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
. He introduced the use of large boats capable of crossing the
Lake Chad Lake Chad (, Kanuri language, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', ) is an endorheic freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of . ...
'rapidly' replacing the smaller ''gagara'' boats from 'ancient times' which took two to three days to make the same journey. This allowed his army to travel faster and also supported trade in the region. Alooma took a keen interest in trade and other economic matters. He was credited with having cleared the roads, designed better boats for Lake Chad, introduced standard units of measure for grain, and moving farmers into new lands. In addition, he improved the ease and security of transit through the empire with the goal of making it so safe that "a lone woman clad in gold might walk with none to fear but God."


Military campaigns

One of the most well known aspects of Alooma's legacy was his extensive military expeditions and innovations. He employed
Turkish Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...
military advisers to train his gunmen so they fully utilise his newly acquire muskets. These Turks were likely mercenaries who migrated to Bornu in pursuit of renown and riches. Alooma also implemented the widespread establishment of ''
ribat A ribāṭ (; hospice, hostel, base or retreat) is an Arabic term, initially designating a small fortification built along a frontier during the first years of the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb to house military volunteers, called ''murabitun' ...
s'', fortified military posts, to uphold his authority and secure control across the entirety of Bornu. Furthermore, he was credited with introducing the use of
camel cavalry Camel cavalry, or camelry (, ), is a generic designation for armed forces using camels as a means of transportation. Sometimes warriors or soldiers of this type also fought from camel-back with spears, bow and arrow, bows, or firearms. Camel caval ...
in the
Lake Chad Lake Chad (, Kanuri language, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', ) is an endorheic freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of . ...
region. Alooma also adopted certain policies that aided his military successes. He placed a particular importance to the effective use of time. His armies were meticulously organised and he coordinated the movements of large formations, concentrating them at crucial points, and dispersing them to prevent the strain on the limited food resources of semi-arid regions. These strategies were likely adopted from or influenced by the ''Madugus'', who were renowned for leading merchant caravans through the
Sahara The Sahara (, ) is a desert spanning across North Africa. With an area of , it is the largest hot desert in the world and the list of deserts by area, third-largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica and the northern Ar ...
desert. His armies conducted far-reaching campaigns that covered a vast geographical expanse, ranging from the
Fezzan Fezzan ( , ; ; ; ) is the southwestern region of modern Libya. It is largely desert, but broken by mountains, uplands, and dry river valleys (wadis) in the north, where oases enable ancient towns and villages to survive deep in the otherwise in ...
region in southern
Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...
to the Kawar region in northern
Niger Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state Geography of Niger#Political geography, bordered by Libya to the Libya–Niger border, north-east, Chad to the Chad–Niger border, east ...
, the Kanem region in eastern
Chad Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North Africa, North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to Chad–Libya border, the north, Sudan to Chad–Sudan border, the east, the Central Afric ...
, the Mandara region in northern
Cameroon Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon, is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the R ...
, and even as far as
Hausaland Hausa Kingdoms, also known as Hausa Kingdom or Hausaland, was a collection of states ruled by the Hausa people, before the Fulani jihads. It was situated between the Niger River and Lake Chad (modern day northern Nigeria). Hausaland lay between ...
in
northern Nigeria Northern Nigeria (or Arewa, Arewancin Nijeriya) was an autonomous division within Nigeria, distinctly different from the southern part of the country, with independent customs, foreign relations and security structures. In 1962, it acquired t ...
, reaching as distant as
Kano Kano may refer to: Places *Kano State, a state in Northern Nigeria *Kano (city), a city in Nigeria, and the capital of Kano State ** Kingdom of Kano, a Hausa kingdom between the 10th and 14th centuries ** Sultanate of Kano, a Hausa kingdom betwee ...
. He embarked on a mission to restore Bornu's authority over the territories the empire had lost due to the bloody dynastic conflict it had suffered for a century. This process of reclamation was started by his great-grandfather Mai Ali I Gaji (r. 1472–1504).


Amsaka campaigns

According to Ibn Fartua, Amsaka was a formidable city with a diverse non-Muslim population (in modern-day Kaza near the border of Dikwa and Kala Balge in
Borno state Borno is a States of Nigeria, state in the North East (Nigeria), North-East geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is bordered by Yobe State, Yobe to the west, Gombe State, Gombe to the southwest, and Adamawa State, Adamawa to the south while its ea ...
). The town was encircled by a deep ditch and was situated to the east of Mandara. Unlike similar towns in the region, Amsaka did not have a single ruler. He further described its inhabitants as "insolent, rebellious and very troublesome." Even before the establishment of N'gazargamu in the late 15th-century, Amsaka had already gained a reputation as a mighty town that was heavily defended. Ibn Fartua remarked that Ali Gaji used to make expeditions against "all the towns of the heathen except the land of Amsaka alone. The only reason they held off and left it alone was because of the power of its inhabitants in war and their stout defence of their town." Mai Idris admired the town for its "stubbornness and exclusiveness and presumption." In 1575, he, alongside Yamtarawalla, the chief of the
Babur Babur (; 14 February 148326 December 1530; born Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his father and mother respectively. He was also ...
of Biu, made an initial attempt to invade and sack Amsaka, but he faced a fierce resistance and was repelled. After this initial failure, he took the time to carefully consider his next move. Some years later, he launched a second invasion, this time with a large army. However, instead of directly assaulting the city, he ordered his eager army to encamp just outside the town's east gate and to begin filling the deep trench that surrounded it. The people of Amsaka responded by hurling spears, rocks, burning thatch, and pots of boiling human waste at Alooma's men filling the trench, but these efforts proved ineffective. They also showered the trench fillers with arrows, which likewise did not deter them. Each night, the people of Amsaka would attempt to remove the bundles of guinea corn stalks that Alooma's army had placed in the trench. However, these actions did not discourage Mai Idris. In response, Mai Idris ordered that all the arrows fired at his army be collected, which caused the town's supply of arrowheads to start running low. He also ordered the construction of high platforms around the city, from which his musketeers could fire into Amsaka and provide cover for the trench fillers. Once the trench was successfully filled, Mai Idris commanded that the wooden
stockade A stockade is an enclosure of palisades and tall walls, made of logs placed side by side vertically, with the tops sharpened as a defensive wall. Etymology ''Stockade'' is derived from the French word ''estocade''. The French word was derived f ...
surrounding the city be chopped down, ultimately leading to the dismantling of Amsaka's defenses. On the last day of the
Islamic month The Hijri calendar (), also known in English as the Islamic calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the ann ...
Sha'aban Shaʽban ( ') is the eighth month of the Islamic calendar. It is called the month of 'separation', as the word means 'to disperse' or 'to separate' because the pagan Arabs used to disperse in search of water. The fifteenth night of this month ...
, which fell just before the start of
Ramadan Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. It is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (''Fasting in Islam, sawm''), communal prayer (salah), reflection, and community. It is also the month in which the Quran is believed ...
, specifically on 4 December 1575, Mai Idris led the siege of Amsaka and sacked it. He ordered the complete destruction of the town and the slaughter of all its inhabitants. According to Ibn Fartua, Mai Idris' army suffered only one casualty, a man named Ajima ibn Kalle, during the conquest. This victory in Amsaka elevated Alooma's reputation and standing. As a result, numerous settlements in the region sent representatives bearing gifts, signifying their submission to his rule and their agreement to pay a regular "poll-tax". Amsaka never regained its 'might' and is today a village with a small population.


Kanem campaigns

The Mai initiated more than five military expeditions in Kanem as part of the ongoing dynastic conflict within the Sayfawa dynasty. Idris led 'systematic efforts' to reduce Kanem to submission and eventually, a peace agreement was reached with Abdullah, the Mai of Kanem, and two pieces of document were written and signed. Despite the treaty, there remained disputed territories, leading to the establishment of clear demarcations to define the borders. However, soon after the signing of the treaty, Abdullah passed away, and his son Muhammad assumed leadership. Muhammad's rule was short-lived as he was swiftly ousted by his uncle, Abd al-Jalil, who not only terminated the negotiations but also declined any alliance with Idris. This refusal led to a conflict where Idris's forces suffered significant losses but ultimately emerged victorious. As a result,
Njimi Njimi, also called Birni Njimi, N'Jimi, N'jimi, and Anjimi, was the capital of the Kanem–Bornu Empire until the 14th century. Njimi is first recorded in texts from the 12th century but was probably the empire's original capital, perhaps establishe ...
(the former capital of Kanem-Bornu) and the surrounding areas to the east were incorporated into Bornu, although the rulership of Kanem was reinstated to Muhammad. Idris left behind a strong party of local dignitaries, who were primarily
Shuwa Arabs The Baggāra ( "heifer herder"), also known as Chadian Arabs, are a nomadic confederation of people of mixed Arab and Arabized indigenous African ancestry, inhabiting a portion of the Sahel mainly between Lake Chad and the Nile river near sout ...
, to support Muhammad's governance. However, circumstances necessitated Idris's return to Kanem, where he succeeded in fully annexing the region, thus integrating Kanem into the territory of Bornu.


Relations with North Africa and the Ottoman empire

In the late 16th-century, the North African region saw an increase in Ottoman presence. Following the conquest of the
Maghreb The Maghreb (; ), also known as the Arab Maghreb () and Northwest Africa, is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb al ...
, the Ottoman influence, initially confined to the coastal regions and the vicinity of
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis (from , meaning "three cities") may refer to: Places Greece *Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in the Pelasgiotis district, Thessaly, near Larissa ...
, began to expand southward, particularly toward the
Lake Chad Lake Chad (, Kanuri language, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', ) is an endorheic freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of . ...
region of Bornu. Spearheading this expansion was Mahmut Bey, a ''
sanjak A sanjak or sancak (, , "flag, banner") was an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans also sometimes called the sanjak a liva (, ) from the name's calque in Arabic and Persian. Banners were a common organization of nomad ...
'' of the eyalet of Tripoli. In 1577–8, Mahmut successfully seized the
Fezzan Fezzan ( , ; ; ; ) is the southwestern region of modern Libya. It is largely desert, but broken by mountains, uplands, and dry river valleys (wadis) in the north, where oases enable ancient towns and villages to survive deep in the otherwise in ...
oases, leading to the expulsion of the Awlad Muhammad dynasty, which had governed Fezzan for fifty years, to
Katsina Katsina State ( ; 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤳𞤢𞥁𞤭𞤲𞤢) is a state in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is bordered to the west by Zamfara State, to the east by Kano and Jigawa states, and to the south by Kaduna St ...
, a Hausa city-state likely under Bornu control.The developments in Fezzan directly impacted Bornu's interests, given Fezzan's crucial position as a commercial crossroads in the Central Sahara. In response, Alooma dispatched his envoy, al-hajj Yusuf, to
Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...
, asking the Ottomans to relinquish the fortress known as ''Fezzān'' or ''Qal'at Q.rân'' (according to B. G. Martin, it was likely located in
Bilma Bilma is an oasis town and commune in north east Niger with, as of the 2012 census, a total population of 4,016 people. It lies protected from the desert dunes under the Kaouar Cliffs and is the largest town along the Kaouar escarpment. It ...
in modern-day
Niger Republic Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the north-east, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the south, Benin and Burkina Faso to the south-west, Mali to the wes ...
). This fortress, situated along the trade route connecting Bornu with the Libyan coast, was a pivotal asset. While
Sultan Murad III Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used ...
refused to cede the conquered territory to Mai Idris, he gave strict orders to Mahmut and the beylerbeyi of Tripoli to maintain amicable relations with Bornu and its subjects. Throughout the 1570s, interactions between Bornu and the Ottomans persisted, with Alooma sending delegations to Istanbul on two more occasions, the last being in 1579. The Ottoman Sultan further urged the ''
beylerbey ''Beylerbey'' (, meaning the 'commander of commanders' or 'lord of lords’, sometimes rendered governor-general) was a high rank in the western Islamic world in the late Middle Ages and early modern period, from the Anatolian Seljuks and the I ...
is'' of
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and
Tunis Tunis (, ') is the capital city, capital and largest city of Tunisia. The greater metropolitan area of Tunis, often referred to as "Grand Tunis", has about 2,700,000 inhabitants. , it is the third-largest city in the Maghreb region (after Casabl ...
to foster friendly ties with Bornu and ensure the protection of Bornu pilgrims en route to Mecca. At the outset of the 1580s, a strain emerged in the relationship between the two empires, likely due to the persistent refusal of the Ottomans to relinquish the Fezzan region. In response, Mai Idris dispatched al-hajj Yusuf to seek assistance from
Ahmad al-Mansur Ahmad al-Mansur (; 1549 – 25 August 1603), also known by the nickname al-Dhahabī () was the Saadi Sultanate, Saadi Sultan of Morocco from 1578 to his death in 1603, the sixth and most famous of all rulers of the Saadis. Ahmad al-Mansur was an ...
of
Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...
, who harbored a rivalry with Sultan Murad III. Al-hajj Yusuf made multiple trips to Morocco between 1581 and 1583. The episode was chronicled in detail by the vizier of al-Mansur, Abd al-Aziz b. Muhammad al-Fishtali, in his work, ''Manāhil al-safā''. According to al-Fishtali, al-Mansur agreed to aid Mai Idris on the condition that Mai Idris pledges ''
bay'ah ''Bayʿah'' (, "Pledge of allegiance"), in Islamic terminology, is an oath of allegiance to a leader. It is known to have been practiced by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In Bedouin culture it was a procedure for choosing the leader of the trib ...
'' to him as ''
Amir al-Muminin () or Commander of the Faithful is a Muslim title designating the supreme leader of an Islamic community. Name Although etymologically () is equivalent to English "commander", the wide variety of its historical and modern use allows for a ...
'' and his ''caliph''. Although Mai Idris seemingly agreed to this pledge, there is no evidence that al-Mansur ever provided military support to Bornu. Similarly, there is no historical record of Bornu assisting Morocco during its invasion of Songhai. The motivations, implications, and outcomes of this diplomatic mission remain ambiguous, both from the perspectives of Bornu and Morocco. It is widely believed that al-Mansur sought to establish a caliphate to rival the Ottoman Empire, using this embassy to advance that objective. However, Mai Idris's intentions remain unclear. Shortly after the final envoy from Mai Idris to al-Mansur, between 1582–3 and 1585, the entire Ottoman garrison in Fezzan was slaughtered, leading to the return of the
Awlad Muhammad Awlad Muhammad (or Ouled Muhammed) was a tribe that ruled over the Fezzan region from 1550 to 1812. At their height, their domain extended from Sokna, Libya, Sokna in the north to Murzuk, Murzuq in the south. Starting in 1577, the sultanate had to ...
dynasty from
Katsina Katsina State ( ; 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤳𞤢𞥁𞤭𞤲𞤢) is a state in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is bordered to the west by Zamfara State, to the east by Kano and Jigawa states, and to the south by Kaduna St ...
to resume their governance of the region. According to historian Dr
Remi Dewiere
the proximity of these events was not coincidental, suggesting that Idris Alooma had strategized the reconquest of Fezzan. Dewiere further argues that the bay'ah pledge by Alooma was 'purely symbolic' and that he exploited the rivalry between al-Mansur and Murad III "in order to resolve a local issue." Given the Islamic legitimacy of the Ottoman sultans as protectors of the Holy cities of Islam, with
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis (from , meaning "three cities") may refer to: Places Greece *Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in the Pelasgiotis district, Thessaly, near Larissa ...
and
Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
serving as vital economic partners under Ottoman control, aligning with al-Mansur, a rival caliph, provided Alooma with an opportunity to challenge Ottoman hegemony and the Islamic legacy in Fezzan. However, not acknowledging al-Mansur as the legitimate Caliph of Islam meant that any action against the Ottomans could be interpreted as an affront to the ulama. Following the restoration of the Awlad Muhammad dynasty, Bornu regained control of the Bornu-Tripoli trade route, previously under Ottoman authority.


Death

Mai Idris was killed around
Maiduguri Maiduguri ( ) is the capital and the largest city of Borno State in north-eastern Nigeria, on the continent of Africa. The city sits along the seasonal Ngadda River which disappears into the ''Firki'' swamps in the areas around Lake Chad. Maid ...
by a 'pagan' archer who was hidden on top a tree. The region was said to have been occupied, at the time, by Gamargu and Mabani peoples. He was buried in the middle of the Alau Lake, whence his nickname Alau-ma or Aloo-ma.


Notes


Bibliography

* Barkindo, Bawuro: "The early states of the Central Sudan", ''in'': J. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.), ''The History of West Africa'', vol. I, 3rd ed. Harlow 1985, 225–254. * Dewière, Rémi, ''Du lac Tchad à La Mecque. Le sultanat du Borno et son Monde'' ''(16e-17s siècle)'', Paris, Publications de La Sorbonne, 2017 (Open Access Edition

. * Hunwick, John: "Songhay, Bornu and Hausaland in the sixteenth century", in: J. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.), ''The History of West Africa'', vol. I, 1st ed. London 1971, 202–239. * Ibn Furṭū: "The Kanem wars", in: Herbert R. Palmer: ''Sudanese Memoirs'', vol. I, Lagos 1928, p. 15-81. * Lange, Dierk: ''Le Dīwān des sultans du Kanem-Bornu'', Wiesbaden 1977. * --: ''A Sudanic Chronicle: the Borno Expeditions of Idrīs Alauma'to', Wiesbaden 1987.


See also

*
Ibn Furtu Ahmad bin Furtu or Ibn Furtu (sometimes also called Ibn Fartuwa) was the sixteenth century grand Imam of the Bornu Empire and the chronicler of ''Mai'' Idris Alooma (1564–1596). Writing He wrote two chronicles in Arabic, ''K. ghazawat Barnu'' ...
* Sayfawa dynasty * Sayfawa dynasty *
Bornu Empire Bornu may refer to: * Bornu Empire, a historical state of West Africa * Borno State, Nigeria {{disambig