Hypacrosaurus Altispinus, Head

''Hypacrosaurus'' (meaning "near the highest lizard" reek υπο-, ''hypo-'' = less + ακρος, ''akros'', high because it was almost but not quite as large as ''Tyrannosaurus'') is an extinct genus of duckbill dinosaur similar in appearance to ''Corythosaurus''. Like ''Corythosaurus'', it had a tall, hollow rounded crest, although not as large and straight. It is known from the remains of two species that spanned 75 to 67 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada, and Montana, United States, and is the latest hollow-crested duckbill known from good remains in North America. It was an obscure genus until the discovery in the 1990s of nests, eggs, and hatchlings belonging to ''H. stebingeri''.

Discovery and history

The type remains of ''Hypacrosaurus'' were collected in 1910 by Barnum Brown for the American Museum of Natural History. The remains, a partial postcranial skeleton consisting of several vertebrae and a partial pelvis (AMNH 5204), came from along the Red Deer River near Tolman Ferry, Alberta, Canada, from rocks of what is now known as the Horseshoe Canyon Formation ( early Maastrichtian, Upper Cretaceous). Brown described these remains, in combination with other postcranial bones, in 1913 as a new genus that he considered to be like ''Saurolophus''. No skull was known at this time, but two skulls were soon discovered and described.

During this period, the remains of small hollow-crested duckbills were described as their own genera and species. The first of these that figure into the history of ''Hypacrosaurus'' was ''Cheneosaurus tolmanensis'', based on a skull and assorted limb bones, vertebrae, and pelvic bones from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation. Not long after, Richard Swann Lull and Nelda Wright identified an American Museum of Natural History skeleton (AMNH 5461) from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana as a specimen of ''Procheneosaurus''. These and other taxa were accepted as valid genera until the 1970s, when Peter Dodson showed that it was more likely that the "cheneosaurs" were the juveniles of other established lambeosaurines. Although he was mostly concerned with the earlier, Dinosaur Park Formation genera ''Corythosaurus'' and ''Lambeosaurus'', he suggested that ''Cheneosaurus'' would turn out to be composed of juvenile individuals of the contemporaneous ''Hypacrosaurus altispinus''. This idea has become accepted, although not formally tested. The Two Medicine ''Procheneosaurus'', meanwhile, was not quite like the other ''Procheneosaurus'' specimens studied by Dodson, and for good reason: it was much more like a species that would not be named until 1994, ''H. stebingeri''.

Species

''H. altispinus'', the type species, is known from 5 to 10 articulated skulls with some associated skeletal remains, from juvenile to adult individuals found in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation. ''H. stebingeri'' is known from an unknown but substantial number of individuals, with an age range of embryos to adults. The hypothesis that ''H. altispinus'' and ''H. stebingeri'' form a natural group excluding other known hadrosaur species may be incorrect, as noted in Suzuki ''et al.s 2004 redescription of ''Nipponosaurus''; their phylogenetic analysis found that ''Nipponosaurus'' was more closely related to ''H. altispinus'' than ''H. stebingeri'' was to ''H. altispinus''. This was rejected by Evans and Reisz (2007), though.

The new species ''Hypacrosaurus stebingeri'' was named for a variety of remains, including hatchlings with associated eggs and nests, found near the top of the late Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) Two Medicine Formation in Glacier County, Montana, and across the border in Alberta. These represent "the largest collection of baby skeletal material of any single species of hadrosaur known".

Description

''Hypacrosaurus'' is most easily distinguished from other hollow-crested duckbills (lambeosaurines) by its tall neural spines and the form of its crest. The neural spines, which project from the top of the vertebrae, are 5 to 7 times the height of the body of their respective vertebrae in the back, which would have given it a tall back in profile. The skull's hollow crest is like that of ''Corythosaurus'', but is more pointed along its top, not as tall, wider side to side, and has a small bony point at the rear. Unlike other lambeosaurines, the passages for the airways do not form an S-curve in the crest (at least not in ''H. altispinus''). The animal is estimated to have been around long, and to have weighed up to 4.0 tonnes (4.4 tons). As with most duckbills, its skeleton is otherwise not particularly remarkable, although some pelvic details are distinctive. Like other duckbills, it was a bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore. The two known species, ''H. altispinus'' and ''H. stebingeri'', are not differentiated in the typical method, of unique characteristics, as ''H. stebingeri'' was described as transitional between the earlier ''Lambeosaurus'' and later ''Hypacrosaurus''.

Classification

''Hypacrosaurus'' was a lambeosaurine hadrosaurid, and has been recognized as such since the description of its skull. Within the Lambeosaurinae, it is closest to ''Lambeosaurus'' and ''Corythosaurus'', with Jack Horner and Phil Currie (1994) suggesting that ''H. stebingeri'' is transitional between ''Lambeosaurus'' and ''H. altispinus'', and Michael K. Brett-Surman (1989) suggesting that ''Hypacrosaurus'' and ''Corythosaurus'' are the same genus. These genera, particularly ''Corythosaurus'' and ''Hypacrosaurus'', are regarded as the "helmeted" or "hooded" branch of the lambeosaurines, and the clade they form is sometimes informally designated Lambeosaurini. Although Suzuki ''et al.s 2004 redescription of ''Nipponosaurus'' found a close relationship between ''Nipponosaurus'' and ''Hypacrosaurus stebingeri'', indicating that ''Hypacrosaurus'' may be paraphyletic, this was rejected in a later, more comprehensive reanalysis of lambeosaurines, which found the two species of ''Hypacrosaurus'' to form a clade without ''Nipponosaurus'', with ''Corythosaurus'' and ''Olorotitan'' being the closest relatives.

The following cladogram illustrating the relationships of ''Lambeosaurus'' and its close relatives was recovered in a 2022 phylogenetic analysis by Xing Hai and colleagues. Unlike other modern analyses, they found the genus ''Magnapaulia'' to be within ''Hypacrosaurus'', indicating it could be a potential third species.

Paleobiology

As a hadrosaurid, ''Hypacrosaurus'' would have been a bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore, eating a variety of plants. Its skull permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing, and its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth, only a relative handful of which were in use at any time. Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak, and held in the jaws by a cheek-like organ. Its feeding range would have extended from the ground to about above.

Crest functions

The hollow crest of ''Hypacrosaurus'' most likely had social functions, such as a visual signal allowing individuals to identify sex or species, and providing a resonating chamber for making noises. The crest and its associated nasal passages have also figured in the debate about dinosaur endothermy, specifically in discussions about nasal turbinates.

Turbinates are thin bones or cartilages that come in two types, with two functions. Nasal olfactory turbinates are found in all living tetrapods and function in smell. Respiratory turbinates function to prevent water loss through evaporation and are found only in birds and mammals, modern endotherms (warm-blooded animals) who could lose a great deal of water while breathing because they breathe more often than comparably sized ectotherms (cold-blooded animals) to support their higher metabolism.Chinsamy, Anusuya; and Hillenius, Willem J. (2004). "Physiology of nonavian dinosaurs". ''The Dinosauria'', 2nd. 643-659. Ruben and others in 1996 concluded that respiratory turbinates were probably not present in ''Nanotyrannus'', ''Ornithomimus'' or ''Hypacrosaurus'' based on CT scanning, thus there was no evidence that those animals were warm-blooded.

Thermoregulation

Examining the oxygen-isotope ratio from the bones from different parts of an extinct animal's body should indicate which thermoregulation mode an animal used during its lifetime. An endothermic (warm-blooded) animal should maintain a very similar body temperature throughout its entire body (which is called homeothermy) and therefore there should be little variation in the oxygen-isotope ratio when measured in different bones. Alternatively, the oxygen-isotope ratio differs considerably when measured throughout the body of an organism with an ectothermic (cold-blooded) physiology.Martin, A.J. (2006). Introduction to the Study of Dinosaurs. Second Edition. Oxford, Blackwell Publishing. 560 pp. . Oxygen-isotope ratios calculated for ''Hypacrosaurus'' suggesting that the ratios varied little, indicating that ''Hypacrosaurus'' was a homeotherm, and likely was endothermic. This is in contrast to the Ruben et al. (1996) finding that ''Hypacrosaurus'' was not warm-blooded, which was based on the absence of nasal turbinates (see Crest functions subsection, above).

Nests and growth

''Hypacrosaurus stebingeri'' laid roughly spherical eggs of , with embryos long. Hatchlings were around long. Studies of lines of growth (i.e. lines of von Ebner) in the teeth of embryonic ''H. stebingeri'' suggests plesiomorphically long incubation times, with a minimum incubation time of 171.4 days for ''H. stebingeri''. Young and embryonic individuals had deep skulls with only slight expansion in the bones that would one day form the crest. Growth was faster than that of an alligator and comparable to ratite growth, for several years, based on the amount of bone growth seen between lines of arrested growth (analogous to growth rings in trees). Research by Lisa Cooper and colleagues on ''H. stebingeri'' indicates that this animal may have reached reproductive maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years, and reached full size at about 10 to 12 years old. The circumference of the thigh bone at postulated reproductive maturity was about 40% that of its circumference at full size. The postulated growth rate of ''H. stebingeri'' outpaces those of tyrannosaurids (predators of hypacrosaurs) such as ''Albertosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus''; rapidly growing hypacrosaurs would have had a better chance to reach a size large enough to be of defensive value, and beginning reproduction at an early age would also have been advantageous to a prey animal. Secondary cartilage has been found in the skull of a hatchling specimen of ''H. stebingeri''.

Cells

In 2020, Alida M. Bailleul and colleagues reported cartilage traces on a hatchling specimen of ''H. stebingeri''. The team performed histological analyses on skull and limb bones of nestling individuals of the specimen MOR 548, a large nesting ground in the Two Medicine Formation attributed to ''H. stebingeri'', and the results showed calcified cartilage within a supraoccipital bone, and upon microscopic magnification, chondrocyte-like structures were found. Several of these structures were preserved in the final stages of mitosis, with some preserving putative traces of celular nuclei. Bailleul and colleagues isolated some of these cells in order to be tested with DNA staining: stains DAPI and PI. They also exposed emu chondrocytes, and these tied up to DNA fragments. ''H. stebingeri'' cells tested positive to possible chemical markers of DNA, in a similar way to the emu cells, suggesting the potential preservation of this molecule. The team concluded that the find was not a product of fossil contamination, and DNA may last much longer than previously assumed.

Paleopathology

The discovery of tooth marks in the fibula of a ''Hypacrosaurus'' specimen inflicted by a bite from the teeth of a tyrannosaurid indicated that this, and other hadrosaurids were either preyed upon or scavenged by large theropod dinosaurs during the Late Cretaceous period.

Paleoecology

Taphonomy

The large, monospecific assemblage of ''Hypacrosaurus stebingeri'' in Montana was interpreted as a group of dinosaurs that was killed by a volcanic ashfall. This assemblage is considered autochthonous, meaning that the remains are thought to have been buried on or near the same spot where the individuals died. The variety of ages in this group supports that this was a biocoenosis—an actual life assemblage of animals.Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1991. Terrestrial vertebrate accumulations. In Allison P. A. and Briggs D. E. G. (Eds), Taphonomy: Releasing the Data Locked in the Fossil Record. New York: Plenum Press. The cause of death in a volcanic ashfall is suffocation by the ash and by the gases released from volcanic eruptions. The preservation of this diverse group of dinosaurs provides researchers with a growth series, which is a sequence of growth stages from juvenile to adult.

Environment

''H. altispinus'' shared the Horseshoe Canyon Formation with fellow hadrosaurids ''Edmontosaurus'' and ''Saurolophus'', hypsilophodont ''Parksosaurus'', ankylosaurid ''Anodontosaurus'', nodosaurid ''Edmontonia'', horned dinosaurs ''Montanoceratops'', ''Anchiceratops'', ''Arrhinoceratops'', and ''Pachyrhinosaurus'', pachycephalosaurid ''Stegoceras'', ostrich-mimics ''Ornithomimus'' and ''Struthiomimus'', a variety of poorly known small theropods including troodontids and dromaeosaurids, and the tyrannosaurid ''Albertosaurus''. The dinosaurs from this formation are sometimes known as Edmontonian, after a land mammal age, and are distinct from those in the formations above and below. The Horseshoe Canyon Formation is interpreted as having a significant marine influence, due to an encroaching Western Interior Seaway, the shallow sea that covered the midsection of North America through much of the Cretaceous. ''H. altispinus'' may have preferred to stay more landward.

The slightly older Two Medicine Formation, home to ''H. stebingeri'', was also populated by another well-known nesting hadrosaur, ''Maiasaura'', as well as the troodontid ''Troodon'', which is also known from nesting traces. The tyrannosaurid ''Daspletosaurus'', caenagnathid ''Chirostenotes'', dromaeosaurids ''Bambiraptor'' and ''Saurornitholestes'', armored dinosaurs ''Edmontonia'', ''Oohkotokia'', and ''Scolosaurus'', hypsilophodont ''Orodromeus'', hadrosaur ''Prosaurolophus'', and horned dinosaurs ''Achelousaurus'', ''Brachyceratops'', ''Einiosaurus'', and ''Rubeosaurus'' were also present. This formation was more distant from the Western Interior Seaway, higher and drier, with a more terrestrial influence.

See also

* Timeline of hadrosaur research

References

External links

''Hypacrosaurus'', from the Canadian Museum of Nature

''Hypacrosaurus'' in The Natural History Museum's Dino Directory

{{Taxonbar, from=Q311563

Lambeosaurinae
Dinosaur genera
Maastrichtian dinosaurs
Horseshoe Canyon Formation
Two Medicine Formation
Taxa named by Barnum Brown
Taxa named by Jack Horner
Taxa named by Philip J. Currie
Fossil taxa described in 1913
Fossil taxa described in 1994
Dinosaurs of Canada
Dinosaurs of the United States
no:Hypacrosaurus