Hydrurga Leptonyx Edit1

The leopard seal (''Hydrurga leptonyx''), also referred to as the sea leopard, is the second largest species of seal in the Antarctic (after the southern elephant seal). It is a top order predator, feeding on a wide range of prey including cephalopods, other pinnipeds, krill, fish, and birds, particularly penguins, and its only natural predator being the orca. It is the only species in the genus ''Hydrurga''. Its closest relatives are the Ross seal, the crabeater seal and the Weddell seal, which are all Antarctic seals of the tribe Lobodontini.

Research history and taxonomy

Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, a French zoologist, described the leopard seal in 1820 from a stuffed specimen from the collection of one M. Hauville, in Le Havre. The skin that produced this work of taxidermy was sourced from "the southern seas", that he ascertained to be from around the Falkland Islands. Blainville describes the specimen as "beautiful", 7-8 "pieds" long ( long) and elongated, the form and features of the head resembling the "phoque moine" or monk seal, with a small number of whiskers short and simple in shape. Blainville was not able to find the ear opening. The "anterior" limbs are falciform, consisting of five fingers which decrease in size from the first to the fifth, tipped with very small claws, with that of the thumb not being "terminal". The hindlimbs are very distal (far back) and close to the short tail; these also consist of five digits, though in contrast to the forelimb, the middle toe is the shortest, with the rear flippers forming a " swallowtail". The skin he examined was described as yellow-white with a brownish dorsum; this is evidently a result of the skin discoloring, as taxidermies degrade over time. He thought that this new species, ''Phoca leptonyx'', must correspond to the animal that "navigators of austral seas" named the "sea calf".

Blainville found it comparable to a specimen he refers to as the "third skull" he examined and described in the same work, possessing the same number and shape of the incisors. This skull, unlabeled and thus of unknown locality, was noted as fresher and more bleached than the second skull he examined, being 10-12 pouces long. At first glance, he found that the skull had significant resemblance to the skull of the "phoque commun" or common seal, moreso than the previous two; though this skull was of bigger dimensions, was not as flattened nor narrowed post-orbitally, and notably had a well developed sagittal crest and enlarged nasal fossae. The robust molars of this skull possesses two roots and three cusps, pointed and prominent with the central cusp being the tallest. Five molars were present on each side of the jawbone, after the robust canines, and the two incisors, the outer pair of incisors resembling the shape of the canines.

The genus ''Hydrurga'' was erected by Johannes von Nepomuk Franz Xaver Gistel in 1848.

Description

The leopard seal has a distinctively long and muscular body shape when compared to other seals. The overall length of adults is and their weight is in the range , making them the same length as the northern walrus but usually less than half the weight. They are covered in a thick layer of blubber that helps to keep them warm while in the cold temperatures of the Antarctic. This blubber also helps to streamline their body making them more hydrodynamic, and thus able to hunt down swift prey. A seal's body condition can be ascertained through blubber thickness, along with general girth, weight, and length measurements.

Females are larger than males by up to 50%; the leopard seal is sexually dimorphic.

It is perhaps best known for its massive jaws, which allow it to be one of the top predators in its environment. The seal's canine teeth are up to long. These and the incisor teeth are sharp like those of other carnivores, but their molars lock together in a way that allows them to "sieve" krill from the water. This characteristic is shared with the other species in the tribe Lobodontini such as the crabeater seal, and is the trait that gives the tribe its name.

As "true" seals of the family Phocidae, they do not have external ears or '' pinnae'', but possess an internal ear canal that leads to an external opening. Their hearing in air is similar to that of a human, but scientists have noted that leopard seals use their ears in conjunction with their whiskers to track prey under water. The whiskers are short and clear.

Their front flippers are extremely large in comparison to other phocids. Their large front flippers are used to steer themselves through the water column making them extremely agile while hunting. They use their front flippers similarly to sea lions (family Otariidae)

The pelage is counter-shaded; consisting mainly of a blend of silver and dark gray, with a distinctive spotted leopard-like pattern on the dorsum, and a white to light gray color ventrally.

Distribution

Leopard seals are pagophilic ("ice-loving") seals, which primarily inhabit the Antarctic pack ice between 50˚S and 80˚S. Higher densities of leopard seals are seen in West Antarctica than in other regions.

Most leopard seals remain within the pack ice throughout the year and remain solitary during most of their lives with the exception of a mother and her newborn pup. These matrilineal groups can move further north in the austral winter to sub-antarctic islands and the coastlines of the southern continents to provide care for their pups. While solitary animals may appear in areas of lower latitudes, females rarely breed there. Some researchers believe this is due to safety concerns for the pups.

The estimated population of this species ranges from 220,000 to 440,000 individuals, putting leopard seals at "Least Concern". Although there is an abundance of leopard seals in the Antarctic, they are difficult to survey by traditional audiovisual techniques as they spend long periods of time vocalizing under the water’s surface during the austral spring and summer, when audiovisual surveys are carried out. This habit of submarine vocalizing makes leopard seals naturally suited for acoustic surveys, as are conducted with cetaceans, allowing researchers to gather most of what is known about them.

Sightings of vagrant leopard seals have been recorded on the coasts of Geraldton, Western Australia, multiple locales in New Zealand, South America, and South Africa. Fossil evidence suggests that leopard seals were present in South Africa during the Late Pleistocene.

Behavior

Using data received from transmitters called satellite-linked depth recorders (SLDRs) and time-depth recorders (TDRs), which are attached to the seals' heads by scientists, it was determined that leopard seals are primarily shallow divers, but capable of diving deeper than in search for food. They are able to complete these dives by collapsing their lungs and re-inflating them at the surface. This is possible by increasing the amount of surfactants which coats the alveoli in the lungs for re-inflation. They also have a reinforced trachea to prevent collapse at great depth pressures.

These seals feeds on a wide variety of creatures; young leopard seals usually eat mostly krill, squid and fish. Adults are able to take on more difficult but substantial prey, famously including emperor, king, rockhopper, Adélie, gentoo, and chinstrap penguins, though they also prey on other seal species such as Weddell, crabeater, Ross, young southern elephant seals, and fur seal pups.

Research shows that on average, the aerobic dive limit for juvenile seals is around 7 minutes, which means that during the winter months juvenile leopard seals do not eat krill, which is a major part of older seals' diets, since krill is found deeper during this time. This might occasionally lead to co-operative hunting. Co-operative hunting of leopard seals on Antarctic fur seal pups has been witnessed, which could be a mother helping her older pup, or could also be female-male couple interactions, to increase their hunting productivity.

Around the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia, the Antarctic fur seal (''Arctocephalus gazella'') is the main prey. Antarctic krill (''Euphasia superba''), southern elephant seal pups and petrels such as the diving petrel (''Pelecanoides'') and the cape petrel (''Daption'') have also been taken as prey. Vagrant leopard seals in New Zealand have been observed preying on chondrichthyans; elephantfish ('' Callorhinchus milii''), ghost sharks, and spiny dogfish were recorded as prey items. Additionally, this population of leopard seals and those in Australia were noted to bear wounds from chimaeriforms and stingrays respectively.

When hunting penguins, the leopard seal patrols the waters near the edges of the ice, almost completely submerged while waiting for the birds to enter the ocean. It kills the swimming bird by grabbing the feet, then shaking the penguin vigorously and beating its body against the surface of the water repeatedly until the penguin is dead. Previous reports stating that the leopard seal skins its prey before feeding have been found to be incorrect. Lacking the teeth necessary to slice its prey into manageable pieces, it flails its prey from side to side tearing and ripping it into smaller pieces.

Krill is eaten by suction, and strained through the seal's teeth, allowing leopard seals to switch to different feeding styles. Such generalization and adaptations may be responsible for the seal's success in the challenging Antarctic ecosystem.

The only natural predator of leopard seals is the orca.

Acoustic behavior

Leopard seals are very vocal underwater during the austral summer. The male seals produce loud calls (153 to 177 dB 1 μPa at 1 m) for many hours each day. While singing the seal hangs upside down and rocks from side to side under the water. Their back is bent, the neck and cranial thoracic region (the chest) is inflated and as they call their chest pulses. The male calls can be split into two categories: vocalizing and silencing; vocalizing is when they are making noises underwater, and silencing noted as the breathing period at the air surface. Adult male leopard seals have only a few stylized calls, some are like bird or cricket-like trills yet others are low haunting moans. Scientists have identified five distinctive sounds that male leopard seals make, which include: the high double trill, medium single trill, low descending trill, low double trill, and a hoot with a single low trill. These cadences of calls are believed to be a part of a long range acoustic display for territorial purposes, or to attract a potential mate.

The leopard seals have age-related differences in their calling patterns, just like birds. The younger male seals have many different types of variable calls, but the mature male seals have only a few, highly stylized calls. Each male leopard seal produces these individual calls, and can arrange their few call types into individually distinctive sequences (or songs). The acoustic behavior of the leopard seal is believed to be linked to their breeding behaviour. In male seals, vocalizing coincides with the timing of their breeding season, which falls between November and the first week of January; captive female seals vocalize when they have elevated reproductive hormones. Conversely, a female leopard seal can attribute calls to their environment as well; however, usually it is to gain the attention of a pup, after getting back from a forage for food.

Breeding habits

Vocalization is thought to be important in breeding, since males are much more vocal around this time. Mating takes place in the water, and then the male leaves the female to care for the pup, which the female gives birth to after an average gestation period of 274 days. Most leopard seal breeding take place on a pack of ice.

Since leopard seals live in an area difficult for humans to survive in, not much is known on their reproduction and breeding habits. However, it is known that their breeding system is polygynous, meaning that males mate with multiple females during the mating period. Females reach sexual maturity between the ages of three and seven, and can give birth to a single pup during the summer on the floating ice floes of the Antarctic pack ice; males reach sexual maturity around the age of six or seven years. Mating occurs from December to January, shortly after the pups are weaned when the female seal is in estrus."Reproduction - Encyclopedia of Life". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 2018-05-15. In preparation for the pups, the females dig a circular hole in the ice as a home for the pup. A newborn pup weighs around and are usually with their mother for a month, before they are weaned off. The male leopard seal does not participate in childcare, and returns to its solitary lifestyle after the breeding season. Leopard seal pup mortality within the first year is close to 25%.

Five research voyages were made to Antarctica in 1985, 1987 and 1997–1999 to survey leopard seals. They sighted seal pups from the beginning of November to the end of December, and noticed that there was about one pup for every three adults, and they also noticed that most of the adults were staying away from other adults during this season, and when they were seen in groups they showed no sign of interaction.

Relationships with humans

Leopard seals are large predators presenting a potential risk to humans. However, attacks on humans are rare. Most human perceptions of leopard seals are shaped by historic encounters between humans and leopard seals that occurred during the early days of Antarctic exploration. Examples of aggressive behaviour, stalking and attacks are rare, but have been documented. A large leopard seal attacked Thomas Orde-Lees (1877–1958), a member of Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917, when the expedition was camping on the sea ice. The "sea leopard", about long and , chased Orde-Lees on the ice. He was saved only when another member of the expedition, Frank Wild, shot the animal.

In 1985, Canadian-British explorer Gareth Wood was bitten twice on the leg when a leopard seal tried to drag him off the ice and into the sea. His companions managed to save him by repeatedly kicking the animal in the head with the spiked crampons on their boots.Carrington, Damian (2003-07-24)
Inquiry into fatal leopard seal attack begins
NewScientist.com. Retrieved on 2013-02-24. On 26 September 2021, near the dive site Spaniard Rock at Simon's Town, South Africa, three spear-fishermen encountered a leopard seal while spearing approximately 400 m offshore. The seal attacked them and, while they were swimming back to shore, disarmed them of their flippers and spearguns and kept harassing the men over the course of half an hour, inflicting multiple bite and puncture wounds. Leopard seals have shown a predilection for attacking the black, torpedo-shaped pontoons of rigid inflatable boats, leading researchers to equip their craft with special protective guards to prevent them from being punctured.

On the other hand, ''National Geographic'' magazine photographer Paul Nicklen captured pictures of a female leopard seal bringing live, injured, and then dead penguins to him, possibly in an attempt to "nurture" the photographer; the seal apparently continued to provide penguins for Nicklen for four days.

Captivity

The Taronga Zoo kept rescued leopard seals from 1999 to 2014. These seals were thought to be vagrants; washing up on Australian beaches emaciated and bearing bites from cookiecutter sharks. After being nursed back to health, they were not released back into the wild as it was feared that they would transmit diseases to the wild population of leopard seals, so they remained in the care of the zoo until their deaths. In order from date of rescue, they were named Brooke, Sabine, and Casey.

Owha

Owha (full name: ) is a female leopard seal that remained around the coastline of the North Island from 2012 to at least May 2022, recognized by scars on her cheek and flank. She is claimed to be the longest tracked leopard seal in the world.

Death of Kirsty Brown

In 2003, biologist Kirsty Brown of the British Antarctic Survey was killed by a leopard seal while conducting research snorkeling in Antarctica. This was the first recorded human fatality attributed to a leopard seal. Brown was part of a team of four researchers taking part in an underwater survey at South Cove, near the U.K.'s Rothera Research Station. Brown and another researcher, Richard Burt, were snorkeling in the water. Burt was snorkeling at a distance of 15 metres (nearly 50 feet) from Brown when the team heard a scream and saw Brown disappear deeper into the water. She was rescued by her team, but they were unable to resuscitate her. It was later revealed that the seal had held Brown underwater for around six minutes at a depth of up to , drowning her. Furthermore, she suffered a total of 45 separate injuries (bites and scratches), most of which were concentrated around her head and neck.

In a report read at the inquiry into Brown's death, Professor Ian Boyd from the University of St Andrews stated that the seal may have mistaken her for a fur seal, or been frightened by her presence and attacked in defence; Professor Boyd said that leopard seal attacks on humans were extremely rare, but warned that they may potentially become more common due to increased human presence in Antarctica. The coroner recorded the cause of death as “accidental” and “caused by drowning due to a leopard seal attack”.Gyford, Sue (2003-11-14)

. ecophotoexplorers.com. Retrieved on 2019-08-20

Conservation

The only known predators of the leopard seals are orcas and sharks. Because they are limited to a subpolar distribution in the Antarctic, they may be at risk as polar ice caps diminish with global warming. In the wild, leopard seals can live up to 26 years old. Leopard seal hunting is regulated by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS).

Notes

References

General references

*
* Heacox, Kim. (2006)
Deadly Beauty.
''National Geographic'', November 2006
* Saundry, Peter. (2010
Leopard Seal.
''Encyclopedia of Earth''. Topic ed. C. Michael Hogan, editor-in-chief Cutler Cleveland, NCSE, Washington DC

External links

* ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zxa6P73Awcg "Face-off with a deadly predator"(video); National Geographic photo assignment
Voices in the Sea – the Leopard Seal
(audio)

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Lobodontins
Pinnipeds of Antarctica
Pinnipeds of South America
Pinnipeds of Australia
Mammals of Chile
Mammals of South Australia
Fauna of Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Least concern biota of Oceania
Least concern biota of South America
Mammals described in 1820
Extant Zanclean first appearances
Pliocene mammals of South America
Pliocene pinnipeds
Taxa named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville
Articles containing video clips