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The Hongzhi Emperor (30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505), also known by his
temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...
as the Emperor Xiaozong of Ming, personal name Zhu Youcheng, was the tenth
emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, reigning from 1487 to 1505. He succeeded his father, the
Chenghua Emperor The Chenghua Emperor (9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xianzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Jianshen, changed to Zhu Jianru in 1457, was the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1464 ...
. The Hongzhi Emperor was born during a time in which his father's favorite concubine, Lady Wan, and her supporters were eliminating all potential heirs to the throne. The former empress protected the young prince from Lady Wan, and he did not reunite with his father until the age of five, when he was named crown prince. From a young age, he displayed exceptional intelligence and excelled in his studies, receiving a comprehensive Confucian education. After ascending the throne in 1487, the emperor's administration was guided by Confucian ideology, and he himself was known for his diligence and hard work. He closely oversaw all state affairs, implementing measures such as reducing taxes and government spending, and appointing capable officials to ministerial positions. This marked a rare period of harmonious cooperation between the emperor and his grand secretaries and ministers during the Middle Ming period. In addition, the emperor encouraged his ministers to openly express their opinions and even criticize his decisions. As a result, the power of the eunuchs was diminished and the palace intrigues that had plagued previous reigns were eliminated. This led to a more transparent government and revitalized the functioning of the authorities. Under the order of the emperor, the Great Ming Code was updated and supplemented. The empire's economy was thriving, and the government sought to address the shortage of currency by resuming the production of coins that had been abolished in the 1430s. Despite facing a series of floods, the
Yellow River The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...
was successfully regulated, and foreign trade with Southeast Asia flourished. The Hongzhi Emperor's foreign policy was peaceful, with the only major military campaign during his reign being the expedition to
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
in 1495. Ming troops also effectively suppressed several smaller rebellions. As a result, the people prospered under his rule. In comparison to his predecessors, the Hongzhi Emperor can be considered one of the most successful rulers of the Ming dynasty, alongside the
Hongwu The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, founding emperor of the Ming dyna ...
and Yongle emperors.


Early life and accession

Zhu Youcheng, the future Hongzhi Emperor, was born on 30 July 1470. He was the third son of the
Chenghua Emperor The Chenghua Emperor (9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xianzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Jianshen, changed to Zhu Jianru in 1457, was the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1464 ...
, the eighth emperor of the Chinese
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, and the oldest to survive. His mother, a woman surnamed Ji (), was one of the Yao women captured during the suppression of the rebellion in the southern Chinese province of
Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
and brought into the palace. He inherited his mother's southern appearance, with small stature and darker complexion; he had a bushy moustache, a sparse beard, and intelligent, bright eyes. However, he was not physically strong and often suffered from illness in his later years. In 1469, Lady Ji formed a close relationship with the emperor. However, after becoming pregnant, she had to live secretly in the chambers of the former Empress Wu due to the danger posed by the emperor's favorite, Lady Wan. Lady Wan was known for ruthlessly eliminating any potential rivals for the emperor's favor. It was not until Zhu Youcheng was five years old, in June 1475, that the emperor learned of his son's existence. He enthusiastically acknowledged his son, but just a month later, Lady Ji died under suspicious circumstances. From then on, the boy's safety was overseen by his grandmother, Empress Dowager Zhou. The death of his mother must have been a great shock to Zhu Youcheng, as he deeply respected and remembered her even in adulthood. On 5 December 1475, Zhu Youcheng was named crown prince. The old educated eunuch Tan Ji () began to teach him to read (
The Four Books The Four Books () are the four canonical hadith collections of Shia Islam. The term is used mostly by Twelver Shias. Shi'a Muslims use different books of hadith from those used by Sunni Muslims, who prize the six major hadith collections. I ...
) and in March 1478, the young prince's formal education in Confucian philosophy began. A book about exemplary successors was written in 1481 specifically because of his education. His teachers were able to instill Confucianism in him more effectively than other emperors, and he remained faithful to its teachings even in adulthood. Concerned about her fate after the Chenghua Emperor's death and the accession of Zhu Youcheng, Lady Wan began plotting against the successor. Her eunuch ally,
Liang Fang Liang Fang was a Chinese eunuch who held a prominent position in the palace administration of the Chenghua Emperor of the Ming dynasty from 1476 to 1487. He used his position to engage in corrupt activities and enrich himself, with the protection ...
, proposed appointing a new heir, claiming that Zhu Youcheng was unintelligent and inferior. However, another eunuch, Huai En (), defended the prince and argued for the right of inheritance of the eldest son and the stability of the dynasty. As a result, he was transferred to
Fengyang Fengyang County () is a county in north-central Anhui Province, China. It is under the administration of Chuzhou, a prefecture-level city. The county was home to 765,600 people as of 2013. Administrative divisions Fengyang County is divided into ...
, the "Central Capital". Shortly after, the court received news of an earthquake on
Mount Tai Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the ''Jade Emperor Peak'' (), which is commonly reported as being t ...
, which was associated with the crown prince in the beliefs of the time. Officials who supported Zhu Youcheng saw this as a warning from Heaven, displeased with the discussion of succession. Fearing the disfavor of Heaven, the Chenghua Emperor did not make a decision to change the crown prince. In February 1487, Zhu Youcheng married Lady Zhang from Xingji (), a city located on the Grand Canal, less than 200 km south of Beijing (present-day
Qing County Qing County or Qingxian (), or Qingxian, is a county in the east of Hebei province, China, bordering Tianjin to the north. It is under the administration of Cangzhou prefecture-level city, with a population of 420,878 in 2020 residing in an area o ...
,
Cangzhou Cangzhou; Jilu Mandarin, locally pronounced as is a prefecture-level city in eastern Hebei province of China, province, People's Republic of China. At the 2020 Chinese census, 2020 census, Cangzhou's built-up (''or metro'') area made of Yunh ...
prefecture). He was deeply devoted to his wife and remained monogamous. On 1 September 1487, the Chenghua Emperor fell ill and three days later, he entrusted Zhu Youcheng with overseeing the actions of the grand secretaries. He died on 9 September. On 17 September 1487, Zhu Youcheng ascended to the throne and adopted the
era name A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a t ...
Hongzhi, which means "great governance". The Hongzhi Emperor named his wife as empress and his mother as Empress Dowager Xiaomu. He then commanded a hunt for his mother's relatives in Guangxi Province. Two found cousins were named officers of the Imperial Guard. However, they later got into a dispute with another alleged cousin, and in the end, all three were revealed as fraudsters. Despite this, the emperor did construct a temple in Guangxi to pay tribute to his mother's unknown ancestors and a shrine in the
Forbidden City The Forbidden City () is the Chinese Empire, imperial Chinese palace, palace complex in the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City in Beijing, China. It was the residence of 24 Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasty L ...
to honor her memory.


Relations in the palace


The empress and her relatives

The Hongzhi Emperor was completely devoted to his wife. However, the empress focused heavily on favoring her relatives, especially her brothers. She was more concerned with living a luxurious life and trusting Taoist and Buddhist monks. As a result, the court became consumed with luxury and pleasure, something that had not been seen under previous rulers. After their son was born in October 1491, the emperor began to favor not only his wife, but also her father, brothers—Zhang Heling () and Zhang Yanling ()—and all other relatives. In 1490, the empress's father had already been granted the title of Count of Shouning (). Then, in the spring of 1492, the Hongzhi Emperor named his young son as crown prince, further solidifying the power and influence of the Zhang family. Shortly after, the empress's father made an unprecedented request for a promotion to marquis, which was granted despite opposition from many officials. He died that same year and was posthumously elevated to Duke of Chang (). The title of Marquis was then inherited by his elder son, while the younger became Count and later Marquis of Jianchang (). Both brothers received numerous gifts, including land, stewardship of imperial warehouses in Beijing, and licenses to trade in salt. Even the extended family of the Zhangs were granted titles, offices, lands, and opportunities for corruption that were unparalleled compared to the relatives of other Ming empresses. Officials frequently complained about the behavior of the empress's relatives, particularly her brothers. They were accused of corruption, embezzlement, and, in their home county south of Beijing, of seizing land from their neighbors. Despite these accusations, the empress and her mother always defended the Zhang brothers. They were also supported by a group of eunuchs and officials who had advanced their careers through their connections with the Zhang family. As a result, the emperor shielded the entire family from any punishment, even though he generally did not punish critics (according to Confucian ethics, officials should not be punished for honestly and directly pointing out mistakes). The emperor shared a belief in Taoism with his wife, which was frowned upon by officials, especially when he appointed Taoist monks to high ranks. Towards the end of the Hongzhi Emperor's reign, similar negative patterns from the Chenghua era began to emerge, although not to the same extent. These included the establishment of imperial estates, direct appointments that bypassed the Ministry of Personnel, patronage in the salt trade, and bribery, which damaged the image of a conscientious and hard-working, yet inefficient, emperor.


Eunuchs

After ascending to the throne, the Hongzhi Emperor demoted and exiled corrupt and unpopular eunuchs, such as Liang Fang. He then appointed capable and trustworthy candidates to lead the Directorate of Ceremonial, which also informally served as the head of the eunuchs in the imperial palace. One such candidate was Huai En, who had previously retired. Despite these efforts, officials continued to criticize the eunuchs and disapprove of the emperor and his family's favor towards Buddhists and Taoists. However, the emperor's decision to limit the powers of the eunuch secret police units, known as the Western and Eastern Depots, was met with gratitude by the bureaucracy and population of the capital. The emperor also made sure to appoint honorable men to lead these units, as well as the Imperial Guard. During the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor, only two politically significant cases related to eunuchs arose. In 1489, Jiang Cong, who had been one of the three dignitaries governing Nanjing for many years, became embroiled in a dispute with the censors over the legality of certain incomes. These incomes were apparently used to pay for the emperor's expenses. Jiang blamed the censors for their inability to detect other violations of the law, while the censors accused him of wrongdoing. The emperor ultimately ruled in Jiang's favor in 1490, but the attacks from officials continued until he was deposed in 1494. His downfall was due to his construction projects disrupting Nanjing's geomantic configuration. The second case involved Li Guang, who was commissioned by the emperor to raise funds through the sale of salt licenses and payments for the promotion and appointment of officials. Officials repeatedly accused him of making mistakes, but their attempts to discredit him were unsuccessful. However, on 28 October 1498, Li was driven to commit suicide after it was alleged that a pavilion he had built in the imperial gardens was placed in an unsuitable location according to
feng shui Feng shui ( or ), sometimes called Chinese geomancy, is a traditional form of geomancy that originated in ancient China and claims to use energy forces to harmonize individuals with their surrounding environment. The term ''feng shui'' mean ...
principles. This was believed to have caused a series of misfortunes, including the death of the emperor's daughter on 1 October and a fire in one of the palaces of the Forbidden City on 26 October.


Domestic policy


Reduction of bureaucracy and composition of the government

At the start of his reign, the emperor made efforts to reduce unnecessary spending and eliminate corrupt eunuch-run agencies. He placed great importance on the competence and integrity of his bureaucracy, and was even stricter than previous Ming emperors (with the exception of the founder of the dynasty, the
Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, founding emperor of the Ming dyna ...
) in removing incompetent and dishonest officials. Shortly after taking the throne, he conducted a thorough purge of the court, removing many flatterers who had obtained their positions through bribery rather than merit. This included dismissing two thousand extra officials and nearly a thousand Taoists, Buddhists, and lamas, whom he sent back to their homes. He also imprisoned or executed the most corrupt Buddhist and Taoist monks. Additionally, he removed the relatives of Lady Wan from their positions and the disgraced Senior Grand Secretary, Wan An (), who was the head of the government. The reduction of bureaucracy at the beginning of the emperor's reign is evidenced by an episode recorded by the Korean Choe Bu. In the spring of 1488, Choe Bu led a group of Korean sailors who shipwrecked on the coast of
Fujian Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
and were returning home at the expense of the Ming government. While traveling on the Grand Canal to the north, he observed a constant stream of official boats going in the opposite direction. He was told that the new emperor was reducing the number of officials in the capital and, as a gesture of favor, allowing those who were dismissed to travel home comfortably at state expense. The emperor called upon able and straightforward men who had previously retired. Among them were the eunuch Huai En and the official Wang Shu (), the latter of whom was appointed minister of personnel. He sought their advice in selecting the other ministers. The leading ministers in Hongzhi's government were Ma Wensheng, who successively headed the Censorate, the Ministry of War, and the Ministry of Personnel, and Liu Daxia (), who served as minister of war during the last five years of the Hongzhi Emperor's reign. The emperor frequently consulted with Liu Daxia, which was unusual in the Ming administrative system. The emperor also sought advice from the grand secretaries as a group. Of the three grand secretaries from the previous era, two had a bad reputation and were dismissed—Wan An and Liu Jue (). This left only Liu Ji (), who was still criticized by some censors. However, the newly appointed grand secretaries, Liu Jian () and Xu Pu (), as well as those selected a few years later, Qiu Jun (), Li Dongyang, and Xie Qian (), were all honorable men. This led to exceptional harmony at court.


Governing style

The Hongzhi Emperor wholeheartedly embraced the teachings of Confucianism, surpassing even the Ming and other Chinese emperors in his sincerity. He diligently fulfilled both the ritual and political duties of a monarch, striving to live and rule according to Confucian ideals. He listened to his ministers and prioritized the welfare of his people. Despite his conscientious efforts to govern and address the empire's problems, he lacked grand plans or a clear vision. Unlike the Chenghua Emperor, who had not met with his ministers since 1469, the Hongzhi Emperor resumed regular audiences with the ministers in 1497. His government was dominated by civil officials who held more influence than the eunuchs and led military campaigns. He refrained from using harsh punishments against officials. Some Confucian historians have even compared his reign, particularly the early years, to the golden age of the sage rulers of antiquity. He actively worked to heal and streamline the state administration, presiding over daily morning audiences as one of his primary duties as emperor. However, his frail health often made it difficult for him to fulfill his duties. The emperor consistently followed the advice of the grand secretaries, only making decisions on a few personal matters and stubbornly maintaining his independence in those matters. However, as time went on and he was influenced by the empress and her family, he began to make more decisions independently. These decisions included supporting certain Buddhists and Taoists, as well as promoting and giving gifts to a select few individuals. This did not diminish the political power of the Grand Secretariat or the government's high morale. During the Hongzhi era, two important works were compiled to supplement the Ming Code: '' Da-Ming huidian'' () and ''Wenxing tiaoli'' (). These works, which contained 297 articles, were completed in March 1500. However, the editors of the first work were criticized for not addressing the role of eunuchs and regulating their rights, which allowed for their illegal activities to continue. These compilations were the result of years of effort by officials who were dissatisfied with the state of the legal system, with the goal of making slight improvements. The Hongzhi Emperor's devotion to Confucianism was unprecedented and unusual; even as emperor, he took his studies seriously and organized debates on political issues based on classical precedents. He also did not neglect the artistic aspect of education, as he was a skilled painter and calligrapher. Despite his mistakes, officials who were faithful to Confucian ideology overlooked and excused them due to his approach.


Society


Economy and culture

During the Hongzhi era, China experienced numerous natural disasters, particularly towards the end of the 1490s. In the 1480s, a severe drought struck the empire, followed by floods in northern China in the early 1490s, with one particularly devastating flood in 1492. As a result, the emperor granted tax forgiveness on 3.5 million liters of wheat. The floods on the
Yellow River The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...
, which had been ongoing since the late 1480s, caused the dam in
Shandong Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
to collapse, resulting in widespread destruction. In 1493, an expert named Liu Daxia was finally given the task of finding a solution to the problem. He enlisted the help of local experts and successfully regulated the river from
Kaifeng Kaifeng ( zh, s=开封, p=Kāifēng) is a prefecture-level city in east-Zhongyuan, central Henan province, China. It is one of the Historical capitals of China, Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and ...
, redirecting the main flow southeast to Suzhou in northern
Jiangsu Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
and then through the river bed of the Huai River, effectively preventing future floods in Shandong. The project involved 120,000 men and took two years to complete. Liu's success earned him a place in history and the favor of the emperor, leading to his promotion to the position of minister of war (1501–1506). He became a trusted confidant of the emperor during the final years of the Hongzhi Emperor's reign. Despite the challenges of drought, floods, and crop failures, the economy thrived under the Hongzhi Emperor's rule. However, there was a growing concentration of land in the hands of the powerful, particularly in both
metropolitan areas A metropolitan area or metro is a region consisting of a densely populated urban agglomeration and its surrounding territories which share industries, commercial areas, transport network, infrastructures and housing. A metropolitan area usually ...
, which began in the mid-15th century. While the emperor reduced tributary relations with
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
, private foreign trade with the region flourished due to the lack of government enforcement. In
Suzhou Suzhou is a major prefecture-level city in southern Jiangsu province, China. As part of the Yangtze Delta megalopolis, it is a major economic center and focal point of trade and commerce. Founded in 514 BC, Suzhou rapidly grew in size by the ...
, wealthy families began to rival the nobility in their patronage of the arts, leading to the flourishing of the
Wu School Wu or Wumen School () is a group of painters of the Southern School during the Ming period of Chinese history. It was not an academy or educational institution, but rather a group united largely by the artistic theories of its members. Often cla ...
of painting, which included renowned artists such as
Shen Zhou Shen Zhou (, 1427–1509), courtesy names Qinan () and Shitian (), was a Chinese painting, Chinese painter in the Ming dynasty. He lived during the post-transition period of the Yuan conquest of the Ming. His family worked closely with the gove ...
,
Wen Zhengming Wen Zhengming (28 November 1470 – 28 March 1559Wen Zhengming's epitaph by Huang Zuo indicate that he died on the 20th day of the 2nd month of the ''ji'wei'' year during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor. (嘉靖己未二月二十日,与严侍 ...
,
Tang Yin Tang Yin (; 6 March 1470 – 7 January 1524), courtesy name Bohu () and Ziwei (子畏), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, and poet of the Ming dynasty period. Even though he was born during the Ming dynasty, many of his paintings, especially t ...
, and
Qiu Ying Qiu Ying (; 1494–1552) was a Chinese painter of the Ming dynasty who specialised in the '' gongbi'' brush technique. Early life Qiu Ying's courtesy name was Shifu (), and his art name was Shizhou (). He was born to a peasant family in Tai ...
. Grand Secretary Li Dongyang held great influence in matters of painting, calligraphy, and poetry, and the emperor himself was a patron of Shen Du () and other court painters, such as Lü Ji.


Tea trade

Due to conflicts with the
Turpan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the ...
over
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
, the army was in need of horses. As a solution, the emperor agreed to revive the state's practice of exchanging tea for horses, in order to combat the illegal private sale of tea to Tibetan and Mongolian tribes in the northwest. The plan involved licensed traders transporting tea from Sichuan to Gansu border towns, with 40% of the tea (400,000 ''jin'', approximately 240 tons) being handed over to the authorities and the rest being sold by the traders themselves. The government's goal was to obtain 4,000 horses through this exchange, but the merchants would often take the inferior quality tea and keep the higher quality tea for themselves, resulting in the officials receiving subpar horses from the Tibetans in exchange. In 1494, after a famine in Shaanxi, the emperor offered 2 million ''jin'' (around 1,200 tons) of tea from state reserves to merchants in exchange for rice to be sent to the affected regions. In the following years, the practice of exchanging tea for horses was discontinued and instead, merchants were offered 4 million ''jin'' of tea. In 1501, the emperor ordered 4–5 million ''jin'' of tea to be sold for silver, which was then used by the authorities to purchase grain for Shaanxi. However, this decision hindered the exchange of tea for horses, leading the emperor to ban the exchange of tea for grain in 1502. Despite these efforts, the government struggled to obtain high-quality tea to exchange for high-quality horses, and as a result, merchants continued to independently export tea across the border, bypassing the state's control.


Currency

Since the closure of the mints in the 1430s, there has been a worsening shortage of coins and coppers over time. In the early 16th century, privately produced coins replaced the state-issued coins from the early Ming and the remaining Tang and
Song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...
dynasties. By the end of the 15th century, copper coins were mainly in circulation in the north, while silver had replaced them in the south. A revenue record of 1481 mentions that coins were only used in
North North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography. Etymology T ...
and
South Zhili Nanzhili, formerly romanized as and also known as South or Southern Zhili or Chih-li, was a historical province of the Ming Empire. Its capital was Nanjing, from which it is also sometimes known as Nanjing or Nanking Province. Nanzhili co ...
,
Henan Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
and Shandong, which are all located along the Grand Canal. Similarly, a record of 1503 states that coins were used in the same areas, but not in
Fujian Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
,
Guangdong ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
(although they were still in use at the time of the record; private and highly valued Song coins were used),
Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
,
Guizhou ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province , map_caption = Map s ...
, and other inland regions. In
Jiangxi ; Gan: ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = , translit_lang1_type3 = , translit_lang1_info3 = , image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_caption = Location ...
and
Huguang Huguang was a province of China during the Yuan and Ming dynasties. It was founded by the Yuan dynasty in 1274. During the Yuan dynasty it included the areas of modern Hubei south of the Yangtze river, Hunan, Guizhou, and Guangxi. During the Min ...
, rice, grain, silver, and cloth were used as currency, while in the more underdeveloped northwest (in Shaanxi and
Shanxi Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...
), skin was used and in the southwest (Yunnan), cowrie shells were used. Merchants also exported Ming private coins abroad. However, paradoxically, while these coins were accepted as currency and recognized officially abroad, the Ming government stubbornly refused to acknowledge them in China. In the early 16th century, the Ming government discovered that proper state coins had disappeared from the market and resumed minting in 1503. The main purpose of this measure was to push the private coins out of Jiangnan, where they were particularly widespread. The government attempted to support its own coinage by issuing a decree that halved the value of coins from previous dynasties and reiterating the ban on private coinage. Despite these efforts and the significant amount of production, state coins failed to gain dominance in the market. Furthermore, the technical process of producing copper coins was problematic as their casting was expensive and officials did not have access to qualified experts, leading them to even use detained counterfeiters.


Military and foreign policy


Army reforms

The Hongzhi Emperor was likely the first Ming emperor who did not seek military glory or strive to match the accomplishments of his predecessors. He saw himself as a Confucian ruler who should gain superiority over neighboring nations through the power of virtue rather than weapons, and thus he generally avoided aggressive actions. The only notable military campaigns during his reign were the expedition to
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
in 1495 and the suppression of several minor rebellions. He did consider a potential expedition to the northern frontier, but was ultimately dissuaded by his ministers and grand secretaries. In contrast to the late Chenghua era, where the Beijing garrison, including the twelve training divisions, was controlled by eunuchs, the Hongzhi Emperor handed command over to civil officials in 1487 and overall command to Ma Wensheng, an official with considerable experience in leading troops on the northern frontier. Instead of relying solely on hereditary soldiers from the ''Weisuo'' system, the army increasingly turned to hiring mercenaries for pay. These mercenaries were known as "local soldiers" (; ''Tubing'') on the border and "people's stalwarts" (; ''Minzhuang'') inland. In 1494, the emperor officially adjusted the rules for recruiting these soldiers, which had previously been done informally since 1449. In 1502, 300,000 ''Minzhuang'' soldiers were incorporated into the ''Weisuo'' units to strengthen them. In 1464, special examinations were introduced for selecting officers, but it was not until the 1470s that this became more widespread. However, the emperor was dissatisfied with the results of these examinations as they did not reveal officers with exceptional talent. In 1496, he called on local officials to find such men, but this effort proved unsuccessful.


Unrest in the southwest and south

During the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor, unrest continued to plague the southwest region of the Ming dynasty. One of the most significant disturbances during the late 15th century was the rebellion led by a woman named Mi-lu from the Lolo tribe, which took place on the border of
Guizhou ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province , map_caption = Map s ...
and
Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
from 1499 to 1502. The suppression of this rebellion required the mobilization of troops from four provinces and 80,000 members of local tribes. The Li rebellion in
Hainan Hainan is an island provinces of China, province and the southernmost province of China. It consists of the eponymous Hainan Island and various smaller islands in the South China Sea under the province's administration. The name literally mean ...
from 1500 to 1503 was a significant event. It was sparked by the overreach of Chinese officials and led by tribal leaders, resulting in rebels from the inland mountains attacking Chinese residents in the coastal plains. As the government debated the best course of action, Feng Yu, a secretary in the Ministry of Revenue who was a Han Chinese native of Hainan, suggested placing local administration under the control of hereditary Li chiefs instead of Chinese authorities, which had been the norm until the Chenghua era. Although the proposal was approved, the rebellion was ultimately quelled through military force, resulting in heavy losses for both Chinese and Mongol troops. In discussions about the most effective approach to dealing with non-Chinese tribes, officials from the affected regions often advocated for a policy of indirect rule by granting Chinese titles and ranks to native chiefs (known as ''
Tusi ''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain ...
''), rather than implementing a purely Chinese bureaucratic administration.


Central Asia

The Hongzhi Emperor's ministers inherited enmity from the Chenghua era against the Sultan of
Turpan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the ...
, who had captured
Hami Hami ( zh, c=哈密) or Kumul () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known for sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city ...
, an important city on the
Silk Road The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...
west of China, much to their displeasure. In 1489, Ming diplomacy began to organize anti-Turpan actions, and in 1495, the Ming intervened militarily. A Sino-Mongol army conquered Hami and installed a Uighur prince on the throne. However, the Turpans were able to recapture the city before the end of the same year. In response, the Ming government completely halted trade along the Silk Road, forcing the Turpans to yield. In 1499, the Uighur prince was once again installed in Hami. This success was likely due to the influence of the experienced military minister Ma Wensheng, who had served in the northwest in his youth and had a better understanding of the situations beyond the Great Wall than other Beijing statesmen. However, the Uighur prince's incompetence caused tension among his subjects, leading to continued instability. The Ming government continued to interfere in Hami affairs in the first decade of the 16th century, but their influence gradually weakened.


Death and legacy

On 1 June 1505, the Hongzhi Emperor fell ill and died a few days later, on 8 June. He was given the
temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...
Xiaozong, meaning "Filial Ancestor", in recognition of his dedication to Confucian virtues, and the
posthumous name A posthumous name is an honorary Personal name, name given mainly to revered dead people in East Asian cultural sphere, East Asian culture. It is predominantly used in Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Malaysia and Thailand. ...
Emperor Jing (; 'Respectful Emperor'). He was buried in the Tai Mausoleum in the Ming tombs near Beijing. The emperor's thirteen-year-old son succeeded him as the
Zhengde Emperor The Zhengde Emperor (26 October 149120 April 1521), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Wuzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Houzhao, was the 11th List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1505 to 1 ...
on 19 June 1505. Despite his father's love, and his early appointment as successor in 1492, the Zhengde Emperor held opposing views on many issues. In comparison to his son's rejection of Confucian values, the Hongzhi Emperor was remembered by Chinese intellectuals as an ideal ruler. The ''
History of Ming The ''History of Ming'' is the final official Chinese history included in the '' Twenty-Four Histories''. It consists of 332 volumes and covers the history of the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644. It was written by a number of officials commissio ...
'' has recognized the Hongzhi Emperor as one of the commendable rulers of the sixteen Ming emperors, of whom only the Hongxi,
Xuande The Xuande Emperor (16 March 1399 31 January 1435), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Zhanji, was the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1425 to 1435. He was the son and successor of ...
, and Hongzhi emperors were deemed worthy of recognition besides the Hongwu and Yongle emperors. During his reign, border defenses were strengthened, tax administration was improved, and a spirit of openness and cooperation was fostered within the government. The Hongzhi Emperor's rule is traditionally viewed as a time of harmonious relations between the emperor and the government. Confucian scholars praised him as a model ruler and downplayed his flaws, particularly his favoritism towards the empress and her unworthy relatives. The emperor actively advised officials, leading to improved relations with them. However, no changes were made to the structure of the highest offices, allowing for a swift rise in the abuse of eunuch power under the subsequent Zhengde and Jiajing emperors.


Family

In contrast to almost all of his predecessors, who had many consorts and concubines and fathered many children, the Hongzhi Emperor had only one consort, Empress Zhang. His empress gave birth to two sons, but the second one died at a young age. The Hongzhi Emperor showed a lot of love to his first son, which he himself lacked in his childhood. However, the boy quietly disagreed with the emperor's teachings, though he never expressed it openly. According to the ''History of Ming'', on his deathbed, the Hongzhi Emperor summoned his officials and entrusted them with the care of his son, who was only thirteen at the time. His son was described as intelligent, but too inclined towards entertainment and pleasure. According to the ''History of Ming'', the Hongzhi Emperor had three daughters: Princess Taikang, Princess Yongfu, and Princess Yongchun. However, other sources such as ''Wanli yehuo bian'' and the ''Shizong Shilu'' record that Princess Yongfu and Princess Yongchun were actually the daughters of his younger brother,
Zhu Youyuan Zhu Youyuan (22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519), was a prince of the Ming dynasty of China. He was the fourth son of the Chenghua Emperor and father of the Jiajing Emperor. Zhu Youyuan was the fourth son of the Chenghua Emperor, the ninth empe ...
.


Consorts and issue

* Empress Xiaochengjing, of the Zhang clan (; 1471–1541) ** Zhu Houzhao, the
Zhengde Emperor The Zhengde Emperor (26 October 149120 April 1521), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Wuzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Houzhao, was the 11th List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1505 to 1 ...
(; 27 October 1491 – 20 April 1521), first son ** Princess Taikang (; 1494 – 1 October 1498), personal name Xiurong (), first daughter ** Zhu Houwei, Prince Dao of Wei (; 1 January 1495 – 9 March 1496), second son


See also

* Chinese emperors family tree (late)


Notes


References


Citations


Works cited

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External links

* * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Hongzhi Emperor 1470 births 1505 deaths Emperors of the Ming dynasty 15th-century Chinese monarchs 16th-century Chinese monarchs