Hamidiye (cavalry)
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The ''Hamidiye''
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, military service, service, or administrative corps, specialisation. In Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of l ...
s (literally meaning "belonging to
Hamid Hamid refers to two different but related Arabic given names, both of which come from the Arabic triconsonantal root of Ḥ-M-D (): # (Arabic: ''ḥāmed'') also spelled Haamed, Hamid or Hamed, and in Turkish Hamit; it means "lauder" or "one ...
", full official name ''Hamidiye Hafif Süvari Alayları'', Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments) were well-armed, irregular, mainly
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
Kurdish but also Turkish, Circassian,Palmer, Alan, ''Verfall und Untergang des Osmanischen Reiches'', Heyne, München 1994 (engl. Original: London 1992), pp. 249, 258, 389. .Van Bruinessen, Martin
''Agha, Shaikh and State - The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan''
London: Zed Books, 1992, p. 185. Van Bruinessen mentions the "occasional" recruiting of a Turkish tribe (the Qarapapakh)
Turkmen, Shaw, Stanford J. and Ezel Kural Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977, vol. 2, p. 246. Yörük,Öhrig, Bruno, ''Meinungen und Materialien zur Geschichte der Karakeçili Anatoliens'', in: Matthias S. Laubscher (Ed.), Münchener Ethnologische Abhandlungen, 20, Akademischer Verlag, München 1998 (Edition Anacon), zugleich Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität zu München, München 1996, p. 36, . U. a. mit Verweis auf Ş. Beysanoğlu, ''Ziya Gökalp´in İlk Yazı Hayatı - 1894-1909'' iya Gökalp's First Writing Life, 1894-1909 Istanbul 1956, pp. 164-168.Vgl. deutschsprachige Wikipedia, Artikel "Yörük", Abschnitt
Herkunft und Einwanderung nach Kleinasien
, Versions-ID 31139363
and
Arab Arabs (,  , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
formations that operated in the south eastern provinces of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
. Established in 1891 by Sultan
Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
and named after him, the regiments were intended to be modeled after the
Cossacks The Cossacks are a predominantly East Slavic languages, East Slavic Eastern Christian people originating in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Cossacks played an important role in defending the southern borde ...
and were supposedly tasked with patrolling the Russo-Ottoman frontier. However, the ''Hamidiye'' regiments were frequently used by the Ottoman authorities to harass and assault
Armenians Armenians (, ) are an ethnic group indigenous to the Armenian highlands of West Asia.Robert Hewsen, Hewsen, Robert H. "The Geography of Armenia" in ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq ...
living in Eastern Provinces of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
(
Western Armenia Western Armenia (Western Armenian: Արեւմտեան Հայաստան, ''Arevmdian Hayasdan'') is a term to refer to the western parts of the Armenian highlands located within Turkey (formerly the Ottoman Empire) that comprise the historic ...
in some sources). A major role in the Hamidian massacres of 1894-96 had been often ascribed to the ''Hamidiye'' regiments, particularly during the bloody suppression of the revolt of the Armenians of Sasun (1894). After Sultan
Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
's reign, the cavalry was not dissolved but given a new name, the Tribal Light Cavalry Regiments.


Historical background

Sultan Abdul Hamid II's reign has the reputation of being "the most despotic and centralized era in modern Ottoman History".Stephen Duguid, The Politics of Unity: Hamidian Policy of Eastern Anatolia, 139 Sultan Abdul Hamid II is also considered the last sultan to have full control over the territories of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
. His reign struggled with the culmination of 75 years of change throughout the empire and an opposing reaction to that change.
Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
was particularly concerned with the centralization of the empire. His efforts to centralize the Sublime Porte were not unheard of among other sultans. The Ottoman Empire's local provinces had more control over their areas than the central government. Sultan Abdul Hamid II's foreign relations came from a "policy of non-commitment."M.Sükrü Hanioglu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire, 129. The sultan understood the fragility of the Ottoman military, and the Empire's weaknesses of its domestic control.
Pan-Islamism Pan-Islamism () is a political movement which advocates the unity of Muslims under one Islamic country or state – often a caliphate – or an international organization with Islamic principles. Historically, after Ottomanism, which aimed at ...
became Sultan Abdülhamid's solution to the empire's loss of identity and power. His efforts to promote Pan-Islamism were for the most part unsuccessful because of the large non-Muslim population, and the European influence onto the empire.Dr. Bayram Kodaman, The Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments (Abdulhamid II and Eastern Anatolian Tribes) Abdul Hamid II's policies essentially isolated the Ottoman Empire, which further aided in its decline. Several of the elite who sought a new constitution and reform for the empire were forced to flee to Europe. After the
Treaty of Berlin (1878) The Treaty of Berlin (formally the Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East) was signed on 13 July 1878. In the aftermath of the R ...
, the Ottoman Empire began to contract and it lost certain territories. New groups of radical uprisings began to threaten the power of the Ottoman Empire.


Creation of Hamidiye cavalry

The Hamidiye regiments were established in 1891 following a decree published in November 1890. There are several reasons advanced as to why the Hamidiye light cavalry was created. The establishment of the Hamidiye was in one part a response to the Russian threat, although some scholars believe that the central reason was to suppress
Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
socialist/nationalist revolutionaries.Summary of
Janet Klein's ''Power in the Periphery: The Hamidiye Light Cavalry and the Struggle over Ottoman Kurdistan, 1890-1914''.
After the Russo-Ottoman war in 1877-1878 the six eastern provinces were left under the control of several non-state actors with spheres of interest of Kurdish tribes and Armenian revolutionaries. The Armenian revolutionaries posed a threat because they were seen as disruptive, and they could work with the Russians against the Ottoman Empire. The first Armenian revolutionary party was the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party. The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party was made up of Armenian university students whose aim was "to create an independent Armenian state." The Hamidiye Light Cavalry was created to "combat local and cross-border challenges to Ottoman authority." The biggest patron of the Hamidiye was
Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
. They were named after him and under the direct order of him and his brother-in-law Zeki Pasha, the Circassian commander of the 4th Army based in Erzincan. Zeki Pasha was given the task of collecting sufficient taxes in order to recruit Kurds into the Hamidiye. If one was a member of the Hamidiye and a crime was committed against him, the government would take immediate action to punish the criminals.Klein, ''The Margins of the Empire'', 69. The plunder, murder, and theft that the Hamidiye carried out went unpunished, but if a non-Hamidiye group did similar actions they were punished. Other groups who associated themselves with the Hamidiye received benefits as well, they rose in power with the money and land they acquired illegally. Abdul Hamid II. wanted to create a relationship of commitment and loyalty with the
Kurds Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...
that were chosen to make up the Hamidiye Cavalry. The Hamidiye was divided into groups according to age: the ''ibtidaiye'' (ages 17–20), the ''nizamiye'' (age 20–32), and the ''redif'' (age 32–40). An Ottoman diplomat, close advisor to the sultan, and contributor to the creation of the Hamidiye Light Cavalry was Şakir Pasa, was put in charge of the Hamidiye following the massacres against Armenians in 1895–1896. The Kurdish Hamidiye commanders were given exceptional rights to negotiate with the Sultan. Notable commanders were I brahim Pasha, or Kör Hüseyin Pasha. Over time the Russians forged relationships with Armenian revolutionaries, and with Kurdish tribal leaders. The Ottoman Empire understood the threat this created and is in large part why they chose the Kurds to make-up the Hamidiye. The Kurdish population could potentially unite with the Russians, but with the formation of the Hamidiye they would protect the frontiers of the Ottoman Empire. Some argue that the creation of the Hamidiye "further antagonized the Armenian population" and it worsened the very conflict they were created to prevent.Janet Klein, Joost Jongerden, Jelle Verheij, ''Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1975'', 152 The Hamidiye shaped the "social, economic, and political transformations" in Kurdish societies. The Hamidiye received several benefits for their participation. They were able to seize much of the lands they occupied, whether lawful or not.Klein, ''The Margins of the Empire'', 68. The Hamidiye were protected during their annual migrations (periods when they took care of their livestock). They were supplied with the most advanced weapons from the state, and were given armed escorts. The Hamidiye stole money from the villages they plundered without fear of government sanction. The plunder, murder, and theft that the Hamidiye carried out went unpunished, but if a non-Hamidiye group did similar actions they were punished.Klein, ''The Margins of the Empire'', 70. Other groups who associated themselves with the Hamidiye received benefits as well, they rose in power with the money and land they acquired illegally.Klein, ''The Margins of the Empire'', 75. The Hamidiye were not held responsible for their actions. They were assured freedom of action in raids that involved non-Hamidiye parties. The Hamidiye obtained wealth illegally with secret help from the Ottoman government. The corruption, chaos, and destruction caused by the Hamidiye is a direct cause of their lack of order and control. No guidelines in the Hamidiye cavalry led some of its members to not be a part of the indulgences that came with the corruption. Ottoman soldiers described the some Hamidiye as "miserable, hungry, and sometimes poorly clothed." The Hamidiye's performance was due to their "lack of professionalism superimposed on an emotionally charged mission requiring highly disciplined troops." The cavalry was not prepared for all they were intended to do because they were not trained properly and based their raids on anti-Armenian ideologies. These factors led to the slow disintegration of the Hamidiye.


Armenian and Assyrian genocide

The Hamidiye played a significant role in the
Armenian genocide The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
and largely responsible for the Hamidian Massacres that occurred from 1894 to 1896. They were told to take control of many lands populated by Armenians to weaken "internal enemies" along with the hidden agenda of eventually eliminating the Armenians. Regions with high Armenian revolutionary actions were targets for the Hamidiye. The Hamidiye created an "Armenian Conspiracy" to justify their reasons for killing the Armenians. According to some estimates, about ten to twenty thousand Armenians were slaughtered by the Hamidiye units. According to Janet Klein, Hamidiye units were involved in the large scale massacres and violence against Armenians in the period 1894-96 and 1915, and they were also "implicated in mass murder, deportation and looting" during the First World War. According to Richar G. Hovannisian, an Armenian-American, the Ottoman armed forces and Hamidiye units slaughtered Assyrians in the Tur Abdin region in 1915. It is estimated that ten thousand Assyrians were killed, and according to a document from the same years, "the skulls of small children were smashed with rocks, the bodies of girls and women who resisted rape were chopped into pieces live, men were mostly beheaded, and the clergy skinned or burnt alive".


Uniforms

The uniform ranking system was based on the 1861 patterns of cuff chevrons. Several ceremonies took place for the Hamidiye, where they wore elegant uniforms showing their ranks and accomplishments. The new uniforms were to take the place of the colorful uniforms previously worn by the Kurds.Klein, ''The Margins of the Empire'', 37. Its purpose was to create an identity for the Hamidiye who were spread across the frontiers of the empire. Other than this, the Ottoman army was greatly influenced by the
Circassians The Circassians or Circassian people, also called Cherkess or Adyghe (Adyghe language, Adyghe and ), are a Northwest Caucasian languages, Northwest Caucasian ethnic group and nation who originated in Circassia, a region and former country in t ...
. They wore cherkeska and they were armed with shashka Circassian swords and Caucasian dagger. They sometimes consisted of grey tunics or waist-belts, grey trousers with a narrow red stripe, and kalpak with the imperial arms. The uniforms slightly varied depending on the region the Hamidiye was located.


Units

The Hamidiye Regiments were stationed in the following towns and villages: Avyarov. ''Osmanlı-Rus ve İran Savaşlar'ında Kürtler 1801-1900'' he Kurds in the Ottoman-Russian and -Iranian Wars, 1801-1900 Ankara: SİPAN, 1995, .


References


Bibliography

{{commons category, Hamidiye regiments *Klein, Janet. ''The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011. *Klein Janet, Joost Jongerden, Jelle Verheij, ''Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1975''. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leidin, Netherlands, 2012 *Edward J. Erickson, ''"Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912-1913"''. 2003 Cavalry units and formations of the Ottoman Empire History of the Ottoman Empire in Asia History of the Kurdish people History of the Zaza people People of the Armenian genocide Kurdish people from the Ottoman Empire Military units and formations established in 1890 1890 establishments in the Ottoman Empire