Gusuku Site Complex
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often refers to
castle A castle is a type of fortification, fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by Military order (monastic society), military orders. Scholars usually consider a ''castle'' to be the private ...
s or
fortress A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from L ...
es in the
Ryukyu Islands The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Geography of Taiwan, Taiwan: the Ryukyu Islands are divided into the Satsunan Islands (Ōsumi Islands, Ōsumi, Tokara Islands, Tokara and A ...
that feature stone walls. However, the origin and essence of ''gusuku'' remain controversial. In the archaeology of
Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan. It consists of three main island groups—the Okinawa Islands, the Sakishima Islands, and the Daitō Islands—spread across a maritime zone approximately 1,000 kilometers east to west an ...
, the ''
Gusuku period The is an era in the history of the Ryukyu Islands, an island chain now part of Japan. The period corresponds to the spread of agriculture and Japonic languages, Japonic culture from Japan alongside increased social organization, eventually lead ...
'' refers to an archaeological epoch of the Okinawa Islands that follows the shell-mound period and precedes the
Sanzan period The is a period in the history of the Okinawa Islands when three lines of kings, namely , and , are said to have co-existed on Okinawa Island. It is said to have started during King Tamagusuku's reign (traditional dates: 1314–1336) and, accor ...
, when most ''gusuku'' are thought to have been built. Many ''gusuku'' and related cultural remains on
Okinawa Island , officially , is the largest of the Okinawa Islands and the Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyu (''Nansei'') Islands of Japan in the Kyushu region. It is the smallest and least populated of the five Japanese archipelago, main islands of Japan. The island is ...
have been listed by
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
as
World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...
s under the title ''
Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu The is an UNESCO World Heritage Site which consists of nine sites all located in the Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. The heritage sites include two '' utaki'' (or sacred sites, one a gate and the other a grove), the Tamaudun mausoleum, one garden, and ...
''.


Philological analysis

The '' Yarazamori Gusuku Inscription'' (1554) contains phrases, "pile ''gusuku''" (くすくつませ) and "pile up ''gusuku'' and ..." (くすくつみつけて); apparently, ''gusuku'' in these phrases refers to stone walls. In the ''
Omoro Sōshi The is a compilation of ancient poems and songs from Okinawa and the Amami Islands, collected into 22 volumes and written primarily in hiragana with some simple kanji. There are 1,553 poems in the collection, but many are repeated; the number o ...
'' (16th–17th centuries), the term ''gusuku'' is written as "くすく," or "ぐすく" in
hiragana is a Japanese language, Japanese syllabary, part of the Japanese writing system, along with ''katakana'' as well as ''kanji''. It is a phonetic lettering system. The word ''hiragana'' means "common" or "plain" kana (originally also "easy", ...
. Occasionally, the
Chinese character Chinese characters are logographs used to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represent the only on ...
"城" (castle) is assigned to it. In later
ryūka is a genre of songs and poetry originating from the Okinawa Islands, Okinawa Prefecture of southwestern Japan. Most ryūka featured the 8-8-8-6 syllable structure. Concepts and classification The word ''ryūka'' ( u:kain archaic pronunciation ...
and
kumi odori is a form of narrative traditional Ryūkyūan dance. ''Kumi odori'' or ''Kumi wudui'' means "combination dance" or "ensemble dance". Originating in the Ryūkyūan capital of Shuri, Okinawa in 1719, the original purpose of this dance was to ...
, the reading ''shiro'' is also used for the same Chinese character, in addition to also using 城内 (shiro-uchi; inside the castle).Hokama (1995:347) The references to ''gusuku'' in the ''
Omoro Sōshi The is a compilation of ancient poems and songs from Okinawa and the Amami Islands, collected into 22 volumes and written primarily in hiragana with some simple kanji. There are 1,553 poems in the collection, but many are repeated; the number o ...
'' are mostly about castles and fortresses, but sacred places and places of worship are called ''gusuku'' as well. In some cases, ''gusuku'' simply refers to
Shuri Castle is a Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' castle in Shuri, Okinawa, Shuri, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Between 1429 and 1879, it was the palace of the Ryukyu Kingdom, before becoming largely neglected. In 1945, during the Battle of Okinawa, it was ...
.Hokama (1995:241–242) The ''Liuqiu-guan yiyu'' (琉球館訳語), a Okinawan dictionary written in Chinese, maps Chinese "皇城" (imperial palace) to the transcription "姑速姑" (''gu-su-gu''). Similarly, the ''Yiyu yinshi'' (音韻字海) assigns "窟宿孤" (''ku-su-gu'') to "皇城."


Etymology

There is no consensus about the etymology of ''gusuku''. Chamberlain analyzed the word as the combination of ''gu'' (< honorific ''go'' 御) and ''shuku'' (宿). Kanazawa Shōzaburō also segmented ''gusuku'' into ''gu'' and ''suku'' but considered that the latter half was cognate with
Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language, recorded in documents from the Nara period (8th century). It became Early Middle Japanese in the succeeding Heian period, but the precise delimitation of the stages is controversial. Old Ja ...
''shiki'', in which ''ki'' was a loan from
Old Korean Old Korean is the first historically documented stage of the Korean language, typified by the language of the Unified Silla period (668–935). The boundaries of Old Korean periodization remain in dispute. Some linguists classify the sparsely at ...
.
Iha Fuyū is considered the father of Okinawaology and was a Japanese scholar who studied various aspects of Japanese and Okinawan culture, customs, linguistics, and folklore. He signed his name as Ifa Fuyu in English, because of the Okinawan pronuncia ...
proposed that ''suku'' was cognate with ''soko'' (塞, fortress).
Hirata Tsugumasa Hirata may refer to: Places * Hirata, Fukushima, former village in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan * Hirata, Gifu, former town in Gifu Prefecture, Japan * Hirata, Shimane, former city in Shimane Prefecture, Japan * Hirata, Yamagata, former town in Yama ...
considered that ''suku'' was cognate with Japanese ''soko'' (底, bottom).Tomoyose Eiichirō 友寄英一郎: ''Sai gushiku kō'' 再グシク考, Nantō kōko 南島考古, No. 3, pp.39–47, 1975. Similarly,
Higashionna Kanjun also Higaonna Kanjun (14 October 1882–24 January 1963) was an Okinawan scholar who specialized in the history of Okinawa. Alongside Iha Fuyū and Majikina Ankō, he is considered one of the pioneers of modern Okinawan studies. After reading Ja ...
raised doubts over the analysis of ''gu'' since older records always used honorific ''u'' (< ''o'') instead of ''gu'' (< ''go'').
Nakahara Zenchū Nakahara may refer to: * Nakahara (surname), Japanese surname * Nakahara-ku, Kawasaki, a ward of Kawasaki, Japan * Nakahara Prize The Nakahara Prize (中原賞) is an annual award given by the Japanese Economic Association to Japanese economists un ...
identified ''gu'' as ''go'' (stone).


Common features


Walls

The most prominent feature of most gusuku is their
wall A wall is a structure and a surface that defines an area; carries a load; provides security, shelter, or soundproofing; or serves a decorative purpose. There are various types of walls, including border barriers between countries, brick wal ...
(s). Gusuku walls are primarily made with Ryukyuan limestone and, sometimes, coral. There are three types of gusuku walls: ''aikata-zumi'', ''nozura-zumi'', and ''nuno-zumi''. Examples of each are
Nakagusuku Castle is a ''gusuku'' in the village of Kitanakagusuku, Okinawa, Japan. It is one of a number of castles built on the island of Okinawa by the Ryukyu Kingdom now in ruins. History The legendary Ryukyuan commander, Gosamaru, built the fortress in t ...
,
Nakijin Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' located in Nakijin, Okinawa. It is currently in ruins. In the late 14th century, the island of Okinawa consisted of three principalities: Nanzan to the south, Chūzan in the central area, and Hokuzan in the north. Nakijin ...
,
Zakimi Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Yomitan, Okinawa. It is in ruins, but the walls and foundations have been restored. In 2000, Zakimi Castle was designated as a World Heritage Site, as a part of the Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom o ...
, and parts of
Shuri Castle is a Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' castle in Shuri, Okinawa, Shuri, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Between 1429 and 1879, it was the palace of the Ryukyu Kingdom, before becoming largely neglected. In 1945, during the Battle of Okinawa, it was ...
. The shape of gusuku walls usually follows the contours of the land. They are usually thick, and sometimes have low
parapet A parapet is a barrier that is an upward extension of a wall at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony, walkway or other structure. The word comes ultimately from the Italian ''parapetto'' (''parare'' 'to cover/defend' and ''petto'' 'chest/brea ...
s atop them. Some gusuku walls, like those of
Nakagusuku Castle is a ''gusuku'' in the village of Kitanakagusuku, Okinawa, Japan. It is one of a number of castles built on the island of Okinawa by the Ryukyu Kingdom now in ruins. History The legendary Ryukyuan commander, Gosamaru, built the fortress in t ...
, were designed to resist cannon fire.


Bailey

Gusuku have one or more baileys. The baileys of typical gusuku usually contained a residence, a well, an
utaki Utaki (御嶽) is an Okinawan language, Okinawan term for a sacred place, often a Grove (nature), grove, cave, or mountain. They are central to the Ryukyuan religion and the former Noro (priestess), noro priestess system. Although the term ''utak ...
, and storage buildings. Larger gusuku, like Nakijin Castle, could have more than five baileys, while smaller gusuku, like
Iha Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Uruma, Okinawa. It sits on a cliff that separates Iha from Ishikawa, with a grand view of the Ishikawa Isthmus. The castle is in ruins, with nothing left of the original structures save the walls. There are also mul ...
, had a single bailey.


Gates

Gusuku have one or more entrances, often guarded by a heavy gate or
gatehouse A gatehouse is a type of fortified gateway, an entry control point building, enclosing or accompanying a gateway for a town, religious house, castle, manor house, or other fortification building of importance. Gatehouses are typically the most ...
. Gates were the strongpoints of gusuku. Many gusuku, like Nakijin Castle, were adapted to have gun ports next to their gates.


Main Hall

At the heart of most gusuku was the . The Main Hall was typically the residence of a feudal lord ( Aji). The palace at Shuri Castle is the most prominent Main Hall, being the only one remaining, but the site of the Main Hall is very obvious at other gusuku, such as
Katsuren Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Uruma, Okinawa. In 2000, Katsuren Castle was designated as a World Heritage Site, as a part of the Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu. History Katsuren Castle was built on a large hill o ...
.


Utaki

Almost all gusuku contain or are near an , shrines and sites of religious importance in the
Ryukyuan religion Ryukyu may refer to: * Ryukyu Islands, a volcanic arc archipelago * Ryukyuan languages * Ryukyuan people * Kingdom of Ryukyu (1429–1879) * Ryukyu (My Hero Academia), Ryuko Tatsuma, a character in the animanga series ''My Hero Academia'' See als ...
. The relationship between utaki and gusuku has led some experts to question the origin and essence of gusuku.


Research


Okinawa Islands

Although it is widely recognized within the
Okinawa Islands The are an island group in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, and are the principal island group of the prefecture. The Okinawa Islands are part of the larger Ryukyu Islands group and are located between the Amami Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture to the ...
that ''gusuku'' are castles/fortresses, there is ample reason to question this perception. The origin and essence of ''gusuku'' were actively discussed in the 1960s and 70s and remain controversial. Cultural geographer Nakamatsu Yashū claimed that the essence of gusuku was a sacred place. His theory was backed by decades of field work that was not limited to the Okinawa Islands but that extended to
Amami The The name ''Amami-guntō'' was standardized on February 15, 2010. Prior to that, another name, ''Amami shotō'' (奄美諸島), was also used. is a Japanese archipelago in the Satsunan Islands, which is part of the Ryukyu Islands, and is sout ...
, Miyako and Yaeyama. He revealed that an overwhelming majority of what were called ''gusuku'' by local communities did not look like castles or fortresses at all. In fact, they were too isolated from local communities, too small to live in and lacked water supply. Among hundreds of gusuku, only a dozen were fortifications. Each community usually had a gusuku. Gusuku were typically located on hills, but some were on sand dunes, on cliff edges, and in caves. In some communities, what were called gusuku were actually stone tombs. Nakamatsu explained the great diversity of gusuku by one feature in common: sacredness. According to Nakamatsu, a gusuku was in origin a place of "aerial burial." The reason that a dozen of gusuku were transformed into fortress/castle-like structures is unclear, but he conjectured that some rulers had expanded gusuku substantially by building their family residences around them.
Shuri Castle is a Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' castle in Shuri, Okinawa, Shuri, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Between 1429 and 1879, it was the palace of the Ryukyu Kingdom, before becoming largely neglected. In 1945, during the Battle of Okinawa, it was ...
, for example, encompasses sacred places such as ''Sui mui gusuku'' and ''Madan mui gusuku'', which suggests the original nature of the castle.Nakamatsu Yashū 仲松弥秀: ''Sai gusuku kō'' 再「グスク」考, Nantō kōko 南島考古, No. 3, pp.20–25, 1975.Nakamatsu Yashū 仲松弥秀, ''Kami to mura'' 神と村, 1990. Archaeologists from Okinawa Prefecture have labeled some archaeological findings as gusuku. Takemoto Masahide claimed that gusuku were defensive communities. He classified what he considered gusuku into three types: * A: residence of political leaders, a fortress/castle with stone walls, * B: defensive community, and * C: place of ancestor worship or burial place. According to Takemoto, Type B, which is overwhelming in number, appeared during the transitional period between primitive society and class society.Yoshinari Naoki 吉成直樹, ''Ryūkyū no seiritsu'' 琉球の成立, 2011. As noted by Asato Susumu, there is a significant gap in the use of the term ''gusuku''. While Nakamatsu referred to limited space as gusuku, Takamoto applied the term to the whole archaeological site.Asato Susumu 安里進, ''Gusuku, kyōdōtai, mura'' グスク・共同体・村, 1998. Archaeologist Tōma Shiichi hypothesized that a gusuku was the residence of an aji (local ruler or warlord) and his family. Since most gusuku in the Okinawa Islands are accompanied with stone walls, he considered that the Gusuku Period was characterized by the formation of class society. Among archaeologists, however, Kokubu Naoichi supported Nakamatsu's theory considering poor living conditions of gusuku. Asato Susumu expressed concern about the association of gusuku with class society because the emergence of political rulers was not well attested by archaeological findings but mostly based on literature that was written centuries later. Folklorist Kojima Yoshiyuki was also a supporter of the sacredness theory. However, he opposed to Nakamatsu's theory about the origin of gusuku as a burial place. He argued that the word ''gusuku'' originally meant stonework. Separately of this, local communities handed down mountain cult, which shared roots with that of
Yakushima is one of the Ōsumi Islands in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, in area, has a population of 13,178. It is accessible by hydrofoil ferry, car ferry, or by air to Yakushima Airport. Administratively, the island consists of the town ...
and by extension Japan. Some sacred mountains were later fortified with stone walls, and as a result, ''gusuku'' came to mean castles/fortresses. In any case, a flood of archaeological discoveries in the 1970s led Okinawan archaeologists to establish archaeological periods of the Okinawa Islands that were distinct from those of Japan (Amami and the Sakishima group also have unique archaeological periods distinct from Japan and one another). In their framework, the ''Gusuku period'' is an archaeological epoch of the Okinawa Islands, which they consider was characterized by the widespread appearance of gusuku, the widespread use of iron, and farming. It follows the Shell Mound period and precedes the Sanzan period. It is parallel with the late
Heian The Japanese word Heian (平安, lit. "peace") may refer to: * Heian period, an era of Japanese history * Heian-kyō, the Heian-period capital of Japan that has become the present-day city of Kyoto * Heian series, a group of karate kata (forms) * ...
to
Muromachi period The , also known as the , is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate ( or ), which was officially established in 1338 by the first Muromachi ...
s of Japan. Also, the beginning of the Gusuku period corresponds to that of the Old Ryukyu period of Okinawan historiography, both beginning in 1187 with the semi-legendary ascension of King
Shunten Shunten (, traditionally dated – 1237) was the legendary first king of Chūzan and a ruler of Okinawa Island, Okinawa. The official histories of the Ryukyu Kingdom claim that he was the son of the samurai Minamoto no Tametomo and a local noble ...
. Takanashi Osamu, an Amami-based archaeologist, criticized the trend of Okinawan archaeology. The Gusuku period lacked clear markers of dating from an archaeological perspective. Pottery seriation, in particular, remained poorly understood. The contemporaneousness of stone walls and excavated potteries was not established. He also noted a bias of Okinawan archaeologists, who he thought were preoccupied with questions of how the Okinawa-centered kingdom of Ryukyu was formed.Takanashi Osamu 高梨修, ''Amami ni okeru gusuku kenkyū no pāsupekutivu'' 奄美におけるグスク研究のパースペクティヴ, Minami Nihon bunka 南日本文化, Vol. 30, pp.37–60, 1997.Takanashi Osamu 高梨修, ''Ryūkyū-ko wo meguru rekishi ninshiki to kōkogaku kenkyū'' 琉球弧をめぐる歴史認識と考古学研究, Yoshinari ed., Ryūkyū-ko kasanariau rekishi ninshiki 琉球弧・重なりあう歴史認識, pp.9–54, 2007. While typical castle/fortress-type gusuku in the Okinawa Islands were featured by stone walls, it was discovered in the 1980s and 90s that some fortifications in northern Okinawa Island lacked stone walls but instead were characterized by earthworks, ''
kuruwa is a Japanese term for the walls of a Japanese castle, and the regions bounded by the arrangement of those walls. The term may also be written as 郭, and the term is also used for castles built after the Edo period. The kuruwa serves as a de ...
'' and dry moats. This style of fortifications is in fact rather common in
Amami Ōshima , also known as Amami, is the largest island in the Amami Islands, Amami archipelago between Kyūshū and Okinawa Prefecture, Okinawa. It is one of the Satsunan Islands, all of which belong to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, 712.35  ...
and representative of medieval mountain fortifications (中世山城) of Japan. Naka Shōhachirō and Chinen Isamu, a historian and an archaeologist from Okinawa dated them to the late 12th to early 13th centuries and claimed that they were predecessors of gusuku with stone walls.Naka Shōhachirō 名嘉正八郎 and Chinen Isamu 知念勇, ''Okinawa no gusuku shoki ni tsuite'' 沖縄のグスク初期について, Ryūkyū no rekishi to bunka 琉球の歴史と文化, pp. 229–265, 1985. This view was actively criticized by Takanashi Osamu in the late 1990s and 2000s.


Sakishima Islands

Archaeological studies in the
Sakishima Islands The (or 先島群島, ''Sakishima-guntō'') (Okinawan language, Okinawan: ''Sachishima'', Miyakoan language, Miyako: ''Saksїzїma'', Yaeyama language, Yaeyama: ''Sakїzїma'', Yonaguni language, Yonaguni: ''Satichima'') are an archipelago loca ...
in southern
Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan. It consists of three main island groups—the Okinawa Islands, the Sakishima Islands, and the Daitō Islands—spread across a maritime zone approximately 1,000 kilometers east to west an ...
are not so active as those in the main
Okinawa Islands The are an island group in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, and are the principal island group of the prefecture. The Okinawa Islands are part of the larger Ryukyu Islands group and are located between the Amami Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture to the ...
. Some Okinawa-led archaeological reports labeled some sites in Miyako and Yaeyama as "gusuku-like." Archaeologist Ono Masatoshi raised concern about the naïve application of the Okinawan gusuku-as-fortifications framework and urged that scholars should not turn a blind eye to the diversified nature of archaeological sites with stone walls in these islands.Ono Masatoshi 小野正敏: ''Mitsurin ni kakusareta chūsei Yaeyama no mura'' 密林に隠された中世八重山の村, Mura ga kataru Okinawa no rekishi 村が語る沖縄の歴史, pp. 37–68, 1999. Few gusuku sites can be attributed to the fact that the Sakishima Islands were over a hundred years behind Okinawa socially and technologically. In 1500, Ryukyu invaded and annexed the islands, which would have limited further local gusuku development. The primary gusuku site in Yaeyama is Furusutobaru Castle, residence of Oyake Akahachi, which was attacked by
Nakasone Toyomiya (active c. 1500–1530) was a Ryukyuan people, Ryūkyūan Chieftain and later anji (Ryukyu), Anji of the Miyako Islands credited with repelling an invasion from Ishigaki Island, and expanding Miyako political control over some of the Yaeyama Island ...
of Miyako shortly before the invasion by Ryukyu.Uezato, Takashi. ''琉球戦国列伝―駆け抜けろ!古琉球の群星たち!'' (in Japanese). Naha, Borderink, 2012. Page 33, 84–87. Linguist
Nakamoto Masachie Nakamoto (中本, 中元, etc.) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Himeka Nakamoto (born 1996), Japanese mental health counselor, former idol and former member of Nogizaka46 * Hiroshi Nakamoto (born 1966), Japanese ...
noted that in some dialects of Yaeyama, ''gusuku''/''gushiku'' means stone walls themselves (not a structure with stone walls) and conjectured that this might be the original meaning of ''gusuku''.Nakamoto Masachie 中本正智. ''Zusetsu Ryūkyū-go jiten'', pp. 358–359, 1981. According to Ono Masatoshi, ''gusuku'' has various meanings, depending on dialects of Yaeyama, including a partition of a mansion and stone walls surrounding an agricultural field. Nakamatsu Yashū claimed that ''suku''-like word forms were more prominent in Miyako and Yaeyama than ''gusuku''. Regardless of whether it is appropriate to call them ''gusuku'', the Yaeyama Islands have archaeological remains with stone walls, such as Mashuku Village of Hateruma Island, Hanasuku and Gumaara Villages and Shinzato Villages of
Taketomi Island is an island in the town of Taketomi, within Yaeyama District of Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Taketomi is one of the Yaeyama Islands. The population of Taketomi Island was 323 as of January 2012. Geography Taketomi Island is located south of I ...
. These villages were abandoned around the time of the conquest by the Ryukyu Kingdom. What are common to these villages are that they were located on top of cliffs, divided by inhomogeneous cell blocks and lacked roads. The whole village and each cell block were surrounded by stone walls. This type of abandoned settlement can also be found on Miyako Island but they are rather exceptional.Shimoji Kazuhiro 下地和宏: ''Miyako no sonraku no hensen to ishimon'' 宮古の村落の変遷と石門, Mura ga kataru Okinawa no rekishi 村が語る沖縄の歴史, pp. 229–246, 1999. The local people call these remains ''busu nu yashiki'' ( bushi's mansion), ''busu nu yaa ishigaki'' (bushi's house's stone walls) or ''busu nu yaa'' (bushi's house), ''busu nu yama'' (bushi's mountain) in Ishigaki, ''bushin yaa'' (bushi's house) in
Hatoma Hatoma (鳩間島, ''Hatoma-jima''; Yaeyama: ''Patuma''; Okinawan: ''Hatuma'') is a small island of the Yaeyama Islands, approximately in diameter. It is under the administration of Taketomi District, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. In local la ...
, ''nishi nu bushi nu yaa'' (bushi's house in the north) in Aragusuku.Ōhama Eisen 大濱永亘, ''Yaeyama shotō no kōeki'' 八重山諸島の交易, Yoshinari ed., Nichiryū bōeki no reimei 日琉貿易の黎明, pp.345–382, 2008. In the archaeology of Yaeyama, human settlements prior to the conquest by Ryukyu are called "Suku Villages" because the names of these ruins have the suffix ''-suku''.Asaoka Kōji 朝岡康二: ''Hateruma no mura to ido no tsunagari'' 波照間の村と井戸のつながり, Mura ga kataru Okinawa no rekishi 村が語る沖縄の歴史, pp. 165–186, 1999. By extension, the archaeological epoch of the Suku Culture (11–16th centuries) is sometimes used by archaeologists.


Amami Islands

Formal studies of gusuku in the
Amami Islands The The name ''Amami-guntō'' was standardized on February 15, 2010. Prior to that, another name, ''Amami shotō'' (奄美諸島), was also used. is a Japanese archipelago in the Satsunan Islands, which is part of the Ryukyu Islands, and is sout ...
group in southern
Kagoshima Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands. Kagoshima Prefecture has a population of 1,527,019 (1 February 2025) and has a geographic area of 9,187 Square kilometre, km2 (3,547 Square m ...
were started by Nakamatsu Yashū in the 1960s and 70s. He revealed that most of what were called gusuku by local communities of Amami were by no means fortifications. He also noted that Amami had ''-suku'' toponyms, which were otherwise considered specific to Miyako and Yaeyama. However, his study on Amami went largely unnoticed. In the 1980s and 90s, Miki Yasushi, an expert of medieval mountain fortifications of Japan, extended his research to the Amami Islands, largely independently of Okinawan archaeology.Miki Yashushi 三木靖, ''Amami no chūsei jōkaku ni tsuite'' 奄美の中世城郭について, Minami Kyūshū jōkaku kenkyū 南九州城郭研究, Vol. 1, pp.67–83, 1999. His comprehensive study found 129 gusuku toponyms in Amami Ōshima. Similarly, a 1982 research project by Kagoshima Prefecture covered 45 fortifications in Amami. Miki carefully noted that, as Nakamatsu had shown, most of what were called gusuku were not fortifications, and that conversely, some fortifications were not called gusuku by the locals. A major difference from those in the Okinawa Islands was that gusuku in Amami (except those in
Okinoerabu , also known as Okinoerabu, is one of the Satsunan Islands, classed with the Amami archipelago between Kyūshū and Okinawa. The island, 93.63 km2 in area, has a population of approximately 14,000 persons. Administratively it is divided in ...
and Yoron) nearly completely lacked stone walls. As a historian from Japan, Miki took much notice of the religious nature of gusuku in Amami, which is completely absent from Japanese fortresses. Publications from Amami gained attention of some Okinawan archaeologists in the 1980s and 90s, and they attempted to place Amami's gusuku in the Okinawan gusuku-as-fortifications framework. Naka Shōhachiro investigated some gusuku in Amami Ōshima and discovered ''
kuruwa is a Japanese term for the walls of a Japanese castle, and the regions bounded by the arrangement of those walls. The term may also be written as 郭, and the term is also used for castles built after the Edo period. The kuruwa serves as a de ...
'' and dry moats there. He claimed that the primary function of those gusuku was defensiveness, not religiousness as Nakamatsu claimed. He dated them to the late 12th to early 13th centuries and considered that they subsequently evolved into those with stone walls in Okinawa. By contrast, Miki conjectured that the construction of these fortifications was triggered by repeated invasion by the Ryukyu Kingdom in the 15th and 16th centuries. In his survey of earlier studies, Takanashi Osamu criticized Naka's theory because his dating lacked evidence. In fact, gusuku with established dates were mostly from the 14th to 16th centuries. While other archaeologists had focused on mountain fortifications, he paid attention to gusuku in flat land. He also indicated the possible presence of gusuku in the
Tokara Islands The is an archipelago in the Nansei Islands, and are part of the Satsunan Islands, which is in turn part of the Ryukyu Archipelago. The chain consists of twelve small islands located between Yakushima and Amami-Oshima. The islands have a total ...
, which are located to the north of Amami. From 1995 to 2000, a comprehensive investigation of gusuku was conducted in
Naze The Naze is a headland on the east coast of England. It is on the coast of Essex just north of River Blackwater, Essex, Blackwater and projects into the North Sea. This area is south of the double estuary of the River Stour, Suffolk, River St ...
(merged into the city of
Amami The The name ''Amami-guntō'' was standardized on February 15, 2010. Prior to that, another name, ''Amami shotō'' (奄美諸島), was also used. is a Japanese archipelago in the Satsunan Islands, which is part of the Ryukyu Islands, and is sout ...
in 2006) of northern Amami Ōshima. This project initially relied on ''gusuku'' toponyms to find archaeological remains but discovered far more remains in the mountains than expected. Among 45 sites discovered, only five had ''gusuku'' toponyms. This suggests that these sites were not gusuku in origin and that some of them were later transformed into gusuku. The toponymic survey also found that some earlier archaeological reports had labeled gusuku even though the referents were not called ''gusuku'' by locals. As a result, so-called "Uragami Gusuku", for example, was renamed to "Uragami-Arimori site." Earlier studies pointed to the similarity between gusuku in Amami, northern Okinawa Island and medieval mountain fortifications of Japan. Takanashi went further claiming that these fortifications were indeed medieval mountain fortifications. He considered the possibility that there were gaps in time among (1) the beginning of the archaeological sites, (2) the construction of defensive structures and (3) the applications of the name of gusuku. He re-evaluated Nakamatsu's sacredness theory and presented a working hypothesis that gusuku in Amami were of secondary origin, possibly related to the introduction of the ''
noro Noro may refer to: People * Japanese politician * , Japanese economic historian * Francesco Noro (1871–1947), Italian painter * , Japanese jazz fusion guitarist * , Japanese metallurgist * , Japanese singer and entertainer * Line Noro (1900–1 ...
'' priestess system by the Ryukyu Kingdom.


List of castle/fortress-type gusuku


Amami Islands

*Amami ( Akakina Castle – Ruins;
Beru Castle Beru may refer to: * Beru (atoll), part of Kiribati * Beru Group, a diesel cold start systems company * Sherab Palden Beru, a Tibetan painter * Béru, a village in the Yonne department, in France * '' Beru (film)'' a national awarded Kannada mo ...
– Ruins; Ishihara Castle – Ruins; Yononushi Castle – Ruins)


Okinawa Islands

*Ikei ( Ikei Castle – Ruins) *Izena (
Izena Castle is a Ryūkyūan gusuku on Izena Island. It was built around the 14th century by Samekawa, son of the Yogura Chief of Iheya Island. It is built over a limestone outcrop about above sea level on the south eastern side of the island. The castle ...
– Ruins) *Kume ( Chinaha Castle – Ruins; Gushikawa Castle (Kume) – Ruins; Suhara Castle – Ruins; Tunnaha Castle – Ruins;
Uegusuku Castle (Kume) is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Kumejima, Okinawa, on Kume Island. It was the home to the Aji of Kume Magiri The administrative divisions of the Ryukyu Kingdom were a hierarchy composed of districts, ''magiri'', or cities, villages, and islands ...
– Ruins) *Okinawa (
Agena Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' located in the north of Agena district of Uruma, Okinawa, in former Gushikawa, Okinawa, Gushikawa City. It was built on a base of Ryukyuan limestone and occupies . Agena Castle sits at an altitude of , and is naturally pr ...
– Ruins; Chibana Castle – Ruins: Chinen Castle – Ruins;
Gushikawa Castle (Itoman) is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Itoman, Okinawa is a city located in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. The city occupies the southern tip of Okinawa Island. As of 1 October 2020, the city has an estimated population of 61,007 and a population densit ...
– Ruins;
Iha Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Uruma, Okinawa. It sits on a cliff that separates Iha from Ishikawa, with a grand view of the Ishikawa Isthmus. The castle is in ruins, with nothing left of the original structures save the walls. There are also mul ...
– Ruins; Iso Castle – Ruins; Itokazu Castle – Ruins; Kakinohana Castle – Ruins;
Katsuren Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Uruma, Okinawa. In 2000, Katsuren Castle was designated as a World Heritage Site, as a part of the Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu. History Katsuren Castle was built on a large hill o ...
– Partially reconstructed; Kin Castle – Demolished; Komesu Castle – Ruins; Kyan Castle – Ruins;
Mie Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Naha, Okinawa. It is located on the northern mouth of the Kokuba River in Naha Port. History Mie Castle was built on the northern mouth of Naha Port in 1546 by King Shō Sei.Turnbull, Stephen. ''The Samurai Capture ...
– Ruins;
Nago Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Nago, Okinawa. It was built in the 14th century and served as the home of the Aji of Nago Magiri. In 1416, the army of Chūzan, led by Shō Hashi, attacked and captured the castle during the invasion of Hokuzan ...
– Ruins;
Nakagusuku Castle is a ''gusuku'' in the village of Kitanakagusuku, Okinawa, Japan. It is one of a number of castles built on the island of Okinawa by the Ryukyu Kingdom now in ruins. History The legendary Ryukyuan commander, Gosamaru, built the fortress in t ...
– Partially reconstructed;
Nakijin Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' located in Nakijin, Okinawa. It is currently in ruins. In the late 14th century, the island of Okinawa consisted of three principalities: Nanzan to the south, Chūzan in the central area, and Hokuzan in the north. Nakijin ...
– Ruins;
Nanzan Castle , officially , is a Ryūkyūan gusuku and was the largest in, and capital of, Nanzan until 1429. It is in ruins, and is located in Itoman. History Nanzan Castle was built in the early 14th century, and became capital of Nanzan in 1314 when the ...
– Ruins;
Ōzato Castle , officially , is a Ryukyuan gusuku built in Nanzan and used until 1429. It, and the village of Ōzato, are named after the Ōzato Dynasty of Nanzan. It is in ruins, and is an officially designated historical site in Nanjō City, Okinawa.Tok ...
– Ruins; Sashiki Castle – Ruins;
Shuri Castle is a Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' castle in Shuri, Okinawa, Shuri, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. Between 1429 and 1879, it was the palace of the Ryukyu Kingdom, before becoming largely neglected. In 1945, during the Battle of Okinawa, it was ...
– Mostly reconstructed;
Tamagusuku Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Nanjō, Okinawa. It is the oldest castle on Okinawa; ''Chūzan Seikan'' says it was built by Amamikyu, the creation goddess of the Ryukyuan religion. It was the home of the Aji of Tamagusuku Magiri The administr ...
– Ruins; Tomigusuku Castle – Ruins; Uegusuku Castle (Tomigusuku) – Ruins;
Urasoe Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' which served as the capital of the medieval Okinawan principality of Chūzan prior to the unification of the island into the Ryukyu Kingdom, and the moving of the capital to Shuri Castle, Shuri. In the 14th century, Ura ...
– Partially reconstructed;
Yamada Castle was a Ryukyuan gusuku during the Gusuku Period of Ryukyuan history. It is famous for being the birthplace of the Ryukyuan general Gosamaru."Gosamaru." ''Okinawa konpakuto jiten'' (沖縄コンパクト事典, "Okinawa Compact Encyclopedia")Ryuk ...
– Ruins;
Yarazamori Castle was a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Naha, Okinawa. It was located on the southern mouth of the Kokuba River in Naha Port. History Yarazamori Castle was built on the southern mouth of Naha Port in 1546 by King Shō Sei.Turnbull, Stephen. ''The Samurai ...
– Demolished;
Zakimi Castle is a Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' in Yomitan, Okinawa. It is in ruins, but the walls and foundations have been restored. In 2000, Zakimi Castle was designated as a World Heritage Site, as a part of the Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom o ...
– Partially reconstructed)


Sakishima Islands

*Hateruma ( Shimotabaru Castle – Ruins) *Ishigaki ( Furusutobaru Castle – Ruins) *Miyako ( Kubaka Castle – Ruins; Takausu Castle – Ruins; Temaka Castle – Ruins; Ufutaki Castle – Ruins)


See also

*
Gusuku period The is an era in the history of the Ryukyu Islands, an island chain now part of Japan. The period corresponds to the spread of agriculture and Japonic languages, Japonic culture from Japan alongside increased social organization, eventually lead ...
*
Mount Gusuku is a mountain on the island of Iejima, northwest of Okinawa Island. At tall, it is the highest point on Iejima. Mount Gusuku is considered a symbol of Iejima due to its distinctive conical shape. The mountain sits on the eastern side of the i ...
*
Historic Sites of Okinawa History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some theorists categ ...
*
Japanese castle are fortresses constructed primarily of wood and stone. They evolved from the wooden stockades of earlier centuries and came into their best-known form in the 16th century. Castles in Japan were built to guard important or strategic sites, such a ...
*
Chashi is the Japanese term for the hilltop fortifications of the Ainu. The word is of Ainu origin, from チャシ (''casi'', ), which means palisade or palisaded compound; a rival theory relates this to the Korean term 잣 (''cas'', ''jat'', ) o ...
* Architecture of Japan


References

*


Works cited

*


External links


List of gusuku in the Nansei Islands


{{Authority control Military of Ryukyu Castles in Okinawa Prefecture History of Kagoshima Prefecture