Ghetto benches (known in Polish as ''getto ławkowe'')
was a form of official segregation in the seating of university students, introduced in 1935 at the
Lwów Polytechnic.
Rectors at other
higher education
Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education.
The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools ...
institutions in the
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I ...
had adopted this form of
segregation when the practice became conditionally legalized by 1937.
Under the ''ghetto ławkowe'' system,
Jewish
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
university students were required under threat of expulsion to sit in a left-hand side section of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them. This official policy of enforced segregation was often accompanied by acts of violence directed against Jewish students by members of the
ONR (outlawed after three months in 1934).
The seating in benches marked a peak of
antisemitism
Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
in Poland between the world wars according to
Jerzy Jan Lerski
Jerzy Jan Lerski (''nom de guerre'': Jur; also known as George Jan Lerski; 1917-1992); was a Polish lawyer, soldier, historian, political scientist and politician. After World War II he emigrated to the United States, where he became a full prof ...
.
It antagonized not only Jews, but also many Poles.
Jewish students protested these policies, along with some Poles who supported them by standing instead of sitting.
The segregation continued until the
invasion of Poland
The invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign, Polish Campaign, and Polish Defensive War of 1939 (1 September – 6 October 1939), was a joint attack on the Second Polish Republic, Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany, the Slovak R ...
in
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
.
Poland's occupation by Nazi Germany suppressed the entire
Polish educational system. In the eastern half of Poland annexed by the
Soviet Union
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
, such discriminatory policies in education were lifted.
Background
The percentage of Poland's Jewish population increased greatly during the
Russian Civil War
The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
. Following Poland's return to independence, several hundred thousand Jews joined the already numerous Polish Jewish minority living predominantly in the cities.
The new arrivals were the least assimilated of all European Jewish communities of that period.
Jews
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
formed the second largest minority after
Ukrainians
Ukrainians (, ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine. Their native tongue is Ukrainian language, Ukrainian, and the majority adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, forming the List of contemporary eth ...
, of about 10 percent of the total population of the
Polish Second Republic
The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I. ...
. Jewish representation in the institutions of higher learning began to increase already during
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
. By the early 1920s, Jewish students constituted over one-third of all students attending Polish universities.
The difficult situation in the private sector, compounded by the
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty, drastic reductions in industrial production and international trade, and widespread bank and ...
,
led to a massive enrollment in universities. In 1923, Jewish students constituted 63 percent of all students of
stomatology, 34 percent of medical sciences, 29 of philosophy, 25 percent of chemistry and 22 percent of law (26 percent by 1929) at all Polish universities. Anger over their numbers, which remained out of proportion with that of the mostly
gentile
''Gentile'' () is a word that today usually means someone who is not Jewish. Other groups that claim Israelite heritage, notably Mormons, have historically used the term ''gentile'' to describe outsiders. More rarely, the term is used as a synony ...
population of Poland during the
Interbellum
In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...
, contributed to a backlash.
Proposals to reinstitute the ''
numerus clausus
''Numerus clausus'' ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the ''numerus clausus'' is simply to limit the number of students to the maximu ...
'', which would restrict Jewish enrollment to 10 percent of the student body (roughly the percentage of Jews living in Poland), were made as early as 1923. However, the proposals were rejected as they would have violated the
Little Treaty of Versailles
Little Treaty of Versailles () or the Polish Minority Treaty () was one of the bilateralism, bilateral Minority Treaties signed between minor powers and the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. The Polish treaty was signed ...
. In spite of these earlier objections, Poland later renounced the Treaty in 1934.
Polish nationalism and hostility towards minorities, particularly Jews, increased.
Discriminatory policies regarding
Jews
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
in education in Poland continued the practice of the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
's ''numerus clausus'' policy, implemented by the Empire during
Poland's partitions, which restricted, by means of
quotas, the participation of
Jews
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
in public life.
Issues that had earlier been resolved by the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
were now decided locally, uniting the Poles while dividing the nation as a whole.
Various means of limiting the number of Jewish students were adopted, seeking to reduce the Jewish role in Poland's economic and social life.
The situation of Jews improved under
Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
,
but after his death in 1935 the
National Democrats regained much of their power and the status of Jewish students deteriorated. A student "Green Ribbon" League was organized in 1931; its members distributed anti-semitic material and called for the boycott of Jewish businesses and the enforcement of the ''numerus clausus''.
In 1934 a group of
rabbi
A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as ''semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of t ...
s petitioned the
Archbishop
In Christian denominations, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In most cases, such as the Catholic Church, there are many archbishops who either have jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province in addition to their own archdi ...
of Warsaw,
Aleksander Kakowski, to stop the "youthful outbursts"; Kakowski responded that the incidents were regrettable, but also claimed that Jewish newspapers were "infecting public culture with atheism."
Agitation against Jewish students intensified during the
economic recession of the 1930s and afterwards, as unemployment began to affect the Polish intellectual strata.
There were growing demands to decrease the number of Jews in science and business so that Christian Poles could fill their positions.
In November 1931, violence accompanied demands to reduce the number of Jewish students at several Polish universities.
The universities' autonomous status contributed to this,
as university
rectors tended not to call in police to protect Jewish students from attacks on the campuses,
and no action was taken against students involved in anti-Jewish violence.
Attempts to legalize segregated seating
In 1935, students associated with
National Democracy National Democracy may refer to:
* National democratic state, a state formation conceived by the Soviet concept of national democracy
* National Democracy (Czech Republic)
* National Democracy (Italy)
* National Democracy (Philippines)
* National De ...
and the
National Radical Camp, influenced by the
Nazi
Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right politics, far-right Totalitarianism, totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During H ...
Nuremberg Laws
The Nuremberg Laws (, ) were antisemitic and racist laws that were enacted in Nazi Germany on 15 September 1935, at a special meeting of the Reichstag convened during the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. The two laws were the Law ...
,
demanded
segregation Segregation may refer to:
Separation of people
* Geographical segregation, rates of two or more populations which are not homogenous throughout a defined space
* School segregation
* Housing segregation
* Racial segregation, separation of human ...
of Jews into separate sections in the classrooms, known as "ghetto benches."
The majority of Jewish students refused to accept this system of seating, considering it to be a violation of their
civil rights
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' political freedom, freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and ...
.
At some universities Polish students even attempted to forcibly move Jews to the ghetto benches.
Following
Piłsudski's death in 1935, anti-Jewish riots broke out at the
University of Warsaw
The University of Warsaw (, ) is a public university, public research university in Warsaw, Poland. Established on November 19, 1816, it is the largest institution of higher learning in the country, offering 37 different fields of study as well ...
and the
Warsaw Polytechnic. The violence spread from the campuses to the streets of Warsaw.
Subsequently, violence broke out at other universities in Poland as well.
The student riots and violence were however mutual. Especially Jewish students from Academic Zionist Association "Kadimah" (Akademicki Związek Syjonistyczny "Kadimah") were involved in violence against Polish students.
An uninterrupted wave of anti-Jewish violence eventually led to the temporary closure of all of Warsaw's institutions of higher education in November 1935. The
National Democracy National Democracy may refer to:
* National democratic state, a state formation conceived by the Soviet concept of national democracy
* National Democracy (Czech Republic)
* National Democracy (Italy)
* National Democracy (Philippines)
* National De ...
press put the blame for the riots on Jews refusing to comply with special seating arrangements set by Polish students.
Introduction of ghetto benches
While the Polish government initially opposed the segregation policies, the universities enjoyed significant level of autonomy and were able to impose their local regulations. Ghetto benches were officially sanctioned for the first time in December 1935 at the
Lwów Polytechnic.
Following several violent attacks against the Jewish students, school officials ordered that they sit in separate sections, under threat of expulsion.
Penalties were imposed on those who stayed away from classes in protest against segregated seating.
The move to legalize ghetto benches was contested by the Jewish community, which saw it as a dangerous precedent. Ghetto benches were criticized by Jewish members of the ''
Sejm
The Sejm (), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (), is the lower house of the bicameralism, bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of the Third Polish Republic since the Polish People' ...
''. In January 1936, a delegation of representatives of the Jewish community of
Lwów
Lviv ( or ; ; ; see #Names and symbols, below for other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine, as well as the List of cities in Ukraine, fifth-largest city in Ukraine, with a population of It serves as the administrative centre of ...
met with
Poland's Education Minister, who promised to discuss the issue with school administrations, and in February 1936 the ghetto-bench order was cancelled by the Lwów Polytechnic's
academic senate
An academic senate, sometimes termed faculty senate, academic board or simply senate, is a governing body in some universities and colleges, typically with responsibility for academic matters and primarily drawing its membership from the academic ...
.
This setback for the segregationist cause did not stop attempts to establish ghetto benches in other Polish universities. Demands for segregated seating were again raised by the
OZON-led
Union of Young Poland (''
Związek Młodej Polski''),
the ''
ND''
All-Polish Youth
The All-Polish Youth () refers to two inter-linked Polish far-right ultranationalist List of youth organizations, youth organizations, with a Political Catholicism, Catholic-nationalist philosophy. Its agenda declares that its aim is "''to raise ...
, and other nationalist youth organizations.
The Ministry of Education in Warsaw was opposed to the ghetto benches, declaring ''
numerus clausus
''Numerus clausus'' ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the ''numerus clausus'' is simply to limit the number of students to the maximu ...
'' a violation of the constitution, and Polish Minister of Education stated that: "Student ghettos would not be introduced at the Polish Universities."
However, in light of the continuing serious riots at the university, which the Ministry condemned as "zoological patriotism," the Ministry slowly gave in and decided to withdraw its opposition, hoping that the introduction of the ghettos would end the riots.
The ethno-nationalists finally won their campaign for ghetto benches in 1937 when by Ministry decision universities were granted the right to regulate the seating of Polish and Jewish students.
On October 5, 1937, the Rector of
Warsaw Polytechnic ordered the establishment of the institution of ghetto benches in the lecture halls.
Within a few days, similar orders were given in other universities of Poland.
Over 50 notable Polish professors (including
Marceli Handelsman,
Stanisław Ossowski
Stanisław Ossowski (22 May 1897 – 7 November 1963) was a Polish sociologist. He held professorships at University of Łódź (1945–1947) and University of Warsaw (1947–1963).
Life
Ossowski was born on 22 May 1897 in Lipno, Poland.
Oss ...
,
Tadeusz Kotarbiński
Tadeusz Marian Kotarbiński (; 31 March 1886 – 3 October 1981) was a Polish philosopher, logician and ethicist.
A pupil of Kazimierz Twardowski, he was one of the most representative figures of the Lwów–Warsaw School, and a member of th ...
, and
Manfred Kridl) criticized the introduction of the ghetto benches,
and refused to enforce either a quota, or the ghetto bench system, but their voices were ignored together with those gentile students who objected to the policy;
they would protest by standing in class, and refusing to sit down.
Rector
Władysław Marian Jakowicki of the
Stefan Batory University
Vilnius University (Lithuanian language, Lithuanian: ''Vilniaus universitetas'') is a Public university, public research university, which is the first and largest university in Lithuania, as well as one of the oldest and most prominent higher e ...
in
Wilno
Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
(Vilnius) resigned from his position in protest of the introduction of the benches.
Another rector who refused to establish ghetto benches in his university was Prof.
Stanisław Kulczyński of
Lwów University
The Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (named after Ivan Franko, ) is a state-sponsored university in Lviv, Ukraine. Since 1940 the university is named after Ukrainian poet Ivan Franko.
The university is the oldest institution of highe ...
. Facing the decision to sign the order introducing segregated seating, Prof. Kulczyński resigned from his position instead of signing it.
Nevertheless, the instruction ordering special "mandatory seats" for all Jewish students still was issued by the vice-rector of Lwów University the next morning.
The only faculty in Poland that did not have ghetto benches introduced was that of the Children's Clinic in the
Piłsudski University of Warsaw led by Professor
Mieczysław Michałowicz
Mieczysław Jan Michałowicz (10 September 1876 – 22 December 1965) was a Polish social and political activist, medical doctor of pediatrics, and professor of the Warsaw University.
Career
Michałowicz was born in Saint Petersburg, Russian Emp ...
, who refused to obey the Rector's order.
Some fifty-six professors of universities in Warsaw, Poznań, and Wilno signed a protest against the Ghetto benches in December 1937. The list included the "elite of Polish scholarship," such as
Tadeusz Kotarbiński
Tadeusz Marian Kotarbiński (; 31 March 1886 – 3 October 1981) was a Polish philosopher, logician and ethicist.
A pupil of Kazimierz Twardowski, he was one of the most representative figures of the Lwów–Warsaw School, and a member of th ...
; sociologists
Józef Chałasiński,
Stanisław,
Maria Ossowska
Maria Ossowska (''née'' Maria Niedźwiecka, 16 January 1896, Warsaw – 13 August 1974, Warsaw) was a Polish sociologist and social philosopher.
Life
A student of the philosopher Tadeusz Kotarbiński, she originally in 1925 received a doctora ...
and
Jan Stanisław Bystroń; biologists
Stanisław Kulczyński and
Jan Dembowski; psychologist
Władysław Witwicki; physicist
Konstanty Zakrzewski; as well as historians
Seweryn Wysłouch
Seweryn Wysłouch (March 19, 1900 in Pirkowicze near Drohiczyn – February 28, 1968 in Wrocław) was a legal historian and vice-rector of Wrocław University.
Biography
Seweryn was born in Pirkowicze near Drohiczyn (Polesie, Poland), the Wy ...
and
Tadeusz Manteuffel.
The introduction of ghetto benches was criticized internationally by the Anglophonic nations. Over 300 British professors signed an anti-ghetto bench manifesto. In New York, the League for Academic Freedom published an open letter signed by 202 professors condemning ghetto benches as "alien to the spirit of academic freedom."
Despite the arguments by
Sanacja
Sanation (, ) was a Polish political movement that emerged in the interwar period, prior to Józef Piłsudski's May Coup (Poland), May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', and gained influence following the coup. In 1928, its political activists went on to fo ...
government that introduction of ghetto benches would stop the disturbances, the clashes between Jewish and gentile youth resulted in two fatalities among the Jewish students,
and further assaults, or even an assassination attempt on Polish professor Konrad Górski critical of the segregation policies.
Aftermath
The ghetto bench system and other anti-Semitic demonstrations of the segment of student youth inspired vengeance among some Jewish students of
Lwów Polytechnic upon the arrival of the Soviet authorities, following the
Soviet invasion of Poland
The Soviet invasion of Poland was a military conflict by the Soviet Union without a formal declaration of war. On 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Second Polish Republic, Poland from the east, 16 days after Nazi Germany invaded Polan ...
.
The practice of segregated seating for the Jewish students in Poland ended with the
demise of the Polish state in the beginning of the
Second World War
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
. After which most Polish educational institutions were shut down (see
Education in Poland during World War II
During World War II in Poland, education often took place underground. Secretly conducted education prepared scholars and workers for the postwar reconstruction of Poland and countered German and Soviet threats to eradicate Polish culture.
Back ...
) although
Lwów Polytechnic remained. Most
Polish Jews
The history of the Jews in Poland dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries, Poland was home to the largest and most significant Jews, Jewish community in the world. Poland was a principal center of Jewish culture, because of the long pe ...
ultimately perished during the
German occupation of Poland
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany, the country of the Germans and German things
**Germania (Roman era)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
and the
Holocaust
The Holocaust (), known in Hebrew language, Hebrew as the (), was the genocide of History of the Jews in Europe, European Jews during World War II. From 1941 to 1945, Nazi Germany and Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy ...
.
See also
*
Disabilities (Jewish)
Jewish disabilities were legal restrictions, limitations and obligations placed on European Jews in the Middle Ages. In Europe, the disabilities imposed on Jews included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as ...
*
Jewish quota
A Jewish quota was a discriminatory racial quota designed to limit or deny access for Jews to various institutions. Such quotas were widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries in developed countries and frequently present in higher education, o ...
*
Racism in Poland
*
Universities and antisemitism
References
Further reading
* Monika Natkowska, ''"Numerus clausus," "ghetto ławkowe," "numerus nullus": Antisemityzm na uniwersytecie Warszawskim 1931–39'' ("Numerus clauses," "ghetto benches," "numerus nullus": Antisemitism in Warsaw University" 1931–39), Warsaw, 1999.
* Zbysław Popławski, "Dzieje Politechniki Lwowskiej 1844–1945," Wrocław 1992.
* H. Rabinowicz. "The Battle of the Ghetto Benches." ''The
Jewish Quarterly Review'', New Series, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Oct., 1964), pp. 151–159.
*
A. Srebrakowski, Sprawa Wacławskiego, „Przegląd Wschodni” 2004, t. IX, z. 3(35), p. 575-601
External links
"Ghetto Benches" entry in ''Encyclopedia of Antisemitism''{{Discrimination
Education policy
Education in the Second Polish Republic
History of the Jews in the Second Polish Republic
Antisemitism in Poland
Segregated schools