Galerius Valerius Maximianus (;
Greek: Γαλέριος; 258 – May 311) was
Roman emperor from 305 to 311. He participated in the system of government later known as the
Tetrarchy
The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the ''augusti'', and their junior colleagues and designated successors, the ''caesares''.
I ...
, first acting as ''
caesar'' under Emperor
Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
. In this period Galerius obtained victory warring against the Persian
Sassanian Empire
The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
, defeating
Narseh at the battle of Satala in 298 and possibly sacking the Sassanian capital of
Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
in 299. He also campaigned across the
Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
against the
Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Galerius was promoted to ''
augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
'' upon the abdication of Diocletian in 305, but had to contend with multiple usurpers as the Tetrarchic system broke down. Although he was a staunch opponent of
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
, he ended the
Diocletianic Persecution by issuing the
Edict of Serdica
The Edict of Serdica, also called Edict of Toleration by Galerius, was issued in 311 in Serdica (now Sofia, Bulgaria) by Roman Emperor Galerius. It officially ended the Diocletianic Persecution of Christianity in the Eastern Roman Empire.
T ...
in 311.
Early life
Galerius was born in the Danube provinces, either near
Serdica or at the place where he later built his palace named after his mother –
Felix Romuliana (
Gamzigrad), in the province later known as
Dacia Ripensis. Under this palace, an older villa has been found that is sometimes interpreted as Galerius' birthplace. His mother, Romula, had left
Roman Dacia
Roman Dacia ( ; also known as ; or Dacia Felix, ) was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 271–275 AD. Its territory consisted of what are now the regions of Oltenia, Transylvania and Banat (today all in Romania, except the last regi ...
(today
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
) and settled in New Dacia south of the
Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
because of the
Carpians' attacks. He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman (). His original ''
cognomen
A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...
'' was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming ''
Caesar''.
[
He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors ]Aurelian
Aurelian (; ; 9 September ) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 270 to 275 AD during the Crisis of the Third Century. As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited the Roman Empire after it had nearly disinte ...
and Probus Probus may refer to:
People
* Marcus Valerius Probus (c. 20/30–105 AD), Roman grammarian
* Marcus Pomponius Maecius Probus, consul in 228
* Probus (emperor), Roman Emperor (276–282)
* Probus of Byzantium (–306), Bishop of Byzantium from 293 t ...
, and in 293, at the establishment of the Tetrarchy
The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the ''augusti'', and their junior colleagues and designated successors, the ''caesares''.
I ...
, was designated '' Caesar'' along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
's daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian provinces. After a few years campaigning against Sarmatians
The Sarmatians (; ; Latin: ) were a large confederation of Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Iranian Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic peoples who dominated the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Pontic steppe from about the 5th century BCE to the 4t ...
and Goths
The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is ...
on the Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
, he received command of the legions on the eastern imperial limits. Soon after his appointment, Galerius was dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities Busiris and Coptos.
War with Persia
Invasion, counterinvasion
In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I
Shapur I (also spelled Shabuhr I; ) was the second Sasanian Empire, Sasanian King of Kings of Iran. The precise dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father Ardashir I as co-regent u ...
, who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate Bahram III, a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 226–241) and Shapur (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor Valerian.
In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia. Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title ''Persici Maximi'' was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran
Harran is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Şanlıurfa Province, Turkey. Its area is 904 km2, and its population is 96,072 (2022). It is approximately southeast of Urfa and from the Syrian border crossing at Akçakale.
...
, Turkey) and Callinicum ( Raqqa, Syria). Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor. David Stone Potter reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted. Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius' position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a ''Caesar'''s deference to his ''Augustus''.
Galerius' army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles. During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.
Galerius advanced into Media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Means of communication, tools and channels used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Interactive media, media that is inter ...
and Adiabene, winning continuous victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum), and securing Nisibis
Nusaybin () is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Mardin Province, Turkey. Its area is 1,079 km2, and its population is 115,586 (2022). The city is populated by Kurds of different tribal affiliation.
Nusaybin is separated ...
(Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. The historian Timothy Barnes argues that he moved down the Tigris
The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
, taking Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
. Barnes' main argument for this is that Eusebius' biography of Constantine mentions that the later emperor had seen the ruins of Babylon according to this work. Patricia Southern also argues that he took Ctesiphon based on the uncertainty of the location where the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem took place. However, no source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked and many other historians argue Diocletian prevented him from moving further into Sasanian territory.
Peace negotiations
Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian. In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander
Alexander () is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.
Variants listed here ar ...
and his beneficent conduct towards the family of Darius III. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their ''magister memoriae'' (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.
The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene ( Sophene), Arzanene ( Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region. Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.
Rule as Augustus
After the abdication of Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
in 305 and the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the rank of ''Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
'', two new '' Caesar''s were required to take their place. Seeking to enhance his authority, Galerius gave the positions to men who were very much his creatures. Maximinus Daza, a nephew of Galerius with little experience or formal education, was assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. Valerius Severus, Galerius' comrade in arms, was sent to govern Italy and Africa from a base in Mediolanum
Mediolanum, the ancient city where Milan now stands, was originally an Insubres, Insubrian city, but afterwards became an important Ancient Rome, Roman city in Northern Italy.
The city was settled by a Celts, Celtic tribe belonging to the Ins ...
. Officially Severus reported to the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, whose power was thus established over three-quarters of the empire.
Constantius died at Eboracum in 306 and the legions elevated his son Constantine to the position of ''Augustus''. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who apologized for the informal nature of his promotion but nonetheless treated it as valid. The first emotions of Galerius were surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger. Calmer consideration made him reluctant to open a civil war: Constantine had the devotion of Constantius' legions, and the young man's character had impressed Galerius during an encounter at Nicomedia. Galerius decided on a compromise position, allowing Constantine to rule the provinces beyond the Alps but giving him only the title of ''Caesar'' and the fourth rank among the Tetrarchs. Severus received the title of ''Augustus''.
Soon afterward, Maxentius, son of Maximian and husband of Galerius' daughter Valeria Maximilla, rebelled in Italy. A need for additional revenue had caused Galerius to disregard Italy's traditional exemption from any form of taxation, and Maxentius exploited local indignation to declare himself emperor. An army led by Severus hastened to Rome, hoping to catch the usurper by surprise, but Maximian, who had previously commanded many of the invading troops, came out of retirement in support of his son. The army switched sides, and Severus was arrested and later executed.
Leaving his long-time friend and military companion Licinius to guard the Danube, Galerius personally invaded Italy with a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East. He forced his way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, but skillful preparations by Maximian prevented him from capturing any territory along the way.
The strength of the enemy's position made Galerius send peace overtures to Rome, professing his fatherly affection for Maxentius and promising to be generous if the rebels cooperated. Maxentius refused the offer, and meanwhile compromised the loyalty of the invasion force by sending bribes to the Illyrian legions. Galerius was compelled to began a withdrawal from Italy, and it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him. In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.
With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an imperial conference
Imperial Conferences (Colonial Conferences before 1907) were periodic gatherings of government leaders from the self-governing colonies and dominions of the British Empire between 1887 and 1937, before the establishment of regular Meetings of ...
at Carnuntum
Carnuntum ( according to Ptolemy) was a Roman legionary fortress () and headquarters of the Roman navy, Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large city of app ...
on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the government. Here it was agreed that Licinius would become ''Augustus'' in the West, with Constantine as his ''Caesar''. In the East, Galerius remained ''Augustus'' and Maximinus remained his ''Caesar''. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.
Galerius' plan soon failed. Envious of Licinius' promotion, Maximinus also claimed the title of ''Augustus''. Maximian, still not willing to retire, declared himself emperor in Arles
Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...
in opposition to Constantine, who was campaigning against the Franks
file:Frankish arms.JPG, Aristocratic Frankish burial items from the Merovingian dynasty
The Franks ( or ; ; ) were originally a group of Germanic peoples who lived near the Rhine river, Rhine-river military border of Germania Inferior, which wa ...
. An additional usurper, Domitius Alexander, arose in Africa, bringing the number of claimants of imperial power up to seven. Galerius maintained his seniority and ceased trying to encroach on the other emperors' domains; he spent his later years in recreation and in public works, such as an extensive logging and drainage project at Lake Pelso (modern Lake Balaton
Lake Balaton () is a freshwater rift lake in the Transdanubian region of Hungary. It is the List of largest lakes of Europe, largest lake in Central Europe, and one of the region's foremost tourist destinations. The Zala River provides the larges ...
).
Persecution of Christians
Christians had lived pleasantly during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings. Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
.
It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the Christians
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the world. The words '' Christ'' and ''C ...
were published, beginning in 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued in Serdica in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see '' Edict of Toleration by Galerius''). Galerius's last request was that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness.
Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes." Lactantius gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum''. This marked the end of official persecution of Christians, which was officially legalized two years later by Constantine and Licinius in the Edict of Milan.
Death
Galerius died in late April or early May 311 from a horribly gruesome disease described by Eusebius and Lactantius, possibly some form of bowel cancer, gangrene or Fournier gangrene.
Galerius was buried in his mausoleum
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type o ...
at Gamzigrad-Romuliana, which was part of the palace he built at his birthplace, today's Zaječar
Zaječar ( sr-Cyrl, Зајечар, ; or ) is a city and the administrative center of the Zaječar District in eastern Serbia. According to the 2022 census, the city administrative area had a population of 48,621 inhabitants.
Zaječar is widely ...
in Serbia
, image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg
, national_motto =
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map =
, map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
. Several lumps composed of corroded iron ring mail ('' lorica hamata'') have been found at the site. This mail armour may have been worn by the wax figure of the emperor that was burned during the imperial funeral and apotheosis ceremony. The entire site has been inscribed into the World Heritage List
World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...
in June 2007.
Anti-Roman accusations
According to Lactantius, a Christian and adviser to Constantine, Galerius affirmed his Dacian identity and avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name once made emperor, even proposing that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian Empire, much to the horror of the patricians and senators. Lactantius further states that Galerius exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the highest power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless cruelty, like the conquerors treated the conquered, all in the name of the same treatment that the victorious Trajan
Trajan ( ; born Marcus Ulpius Traianus, 18 September 53) was a Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. He was a philanthropic ruler and a successful soldier ...
had applied to the conquered Dacians, forefathers of Galerius, two centuries before.
Honours
Galerius Peak in Antarctica
Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...
is named after Emperor Galerius.Galerius Peak.
SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica
Family tree
See also
*
Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
*
Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
Notes
References
Sources
Ancient sources
*''Codex Theodosianus''.
**Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. ''Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes''
2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann,
9051954. Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online a
University College London and th
Accessed 25 August 2009.
**Unknown edition (in Latin). Online a
AncientRome.ru Accessed 15 August 2009.
*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., trans. ''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Eusebius of Caesarea.
**''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'').
***McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. ''Church History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 25 August 2009.
**''Vita Constantini'' (''Life of Constantine'').
***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 25 August 2009.
*Festus. ''Breviarium''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. ''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Lactantius. ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' (''On the Deaths of the Persecutors'').
**Fletcher, William, trans. ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 25 August 2009.
*''XII Panegyrici Latini'' (''Twelve Latin Panegyrics'').
**Nixon, C.E.V., and Barbara Saylor Rodgers, ed. and trans. ''In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.
*Zosimus. ''Historia Nova'' (''New History'').
**Unknown, trans. ''The History of Count Zosimus''. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.{{efn, This edition and translation is not very good. The pagination is broken in several places, there are many typographical errors (including several replacements of "Julian" with "Jovian" and "Constantine" with "Constantius"). It is nonetheless the only translation of the ''Historia Nova'' in the public domain.
{{Refend
Modern sources
{{Refbegin, 2, indent=y
*{{cite journal , url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/299163 , jstor=299163 , title=Lactantius and Constantine , last1=Barnes , first1=T. D. , journal=The Journal of Roman Studies , date=7 December 1973 , volume=63 , pages=29–46 , doi=10.2307/299163 , s2cid=163051414 , url-access=subscription
* {{cite book , last=Barnes , first=Timothy D. , author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) , title=Constantine and Eusebius , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LGDjJK-JeSwC , year=1981 , publisher=Harvard University Press , location=Cambridge, MA , isbn=978-0-674-16531-1
* {{cite book , last=Barnes , year=1982 , first=Timothy D. , title=The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine , publisher=Harvard University Press , place=Cambridge, MA , isbn=0-674-28066-0 , url={{googlebooks, K3poAAAAMAAJ, plainurl=y , author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist)
* Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In ''Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4'', edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 429–438. Leiden: Brill, 2002. {{ISBN, 90-04-12259-1
* Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. ''The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN, 0-521-30199-8
* Brown, Peter. ''The Rise of Western Christendom''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003. {{ISBN, 0-631-22138-7
* {{cite book, last=von Bülow, first=Gerda, chapter=Die Palastbauten des Kaisers Galerius als Zeugnis für die kaiserliche Machtpräsentation in der Metropole und in der Provinz, trans-chapter=The palace buildings of Emperor Galerius as evidence of the imperial display of power in the metropolis and the provinces, editor1-last=Mihailescu-Bîrliba, editor1-first=Lucreţiu, editor2-last=Piso, editor2-first=Ioan, title=Romans and Natives in the Danubian Provinces (1st–6th C. AD), series=Philippika, volume=173, publisher=Harrassowitz, location=Wiesbaden, year=2023, ISBN=978-3-447-39440-6, pages=567–586
* Burgess, R.W. "The Date of the Persecution of Christians in the Army". ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 47:1 (1996): 157–158.
* Corcoran, Simon. ''The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. {{ISBN, 0-19-815304-X
* Corcoran, "Before Constantine", Simon. "Before Constantine." In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine'', edited by Noel Lenski, 35–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover {{ISBN, 0-521-81838-9 Paperback {{ISBN, 0-521-52157-2
* Elliott, T. G. ''The Christianity of Constantine the Great''. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. {{ISBN, 0-940866-59-5
* Gibbon, Edward, 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire', Chapter 14
* Harries, Jill. ''Law and Empire in Late Antiquity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Hardcover {{ISBN, 0-521-41087-8 Paperback {{ISBN, 0-521-42273-6
* Helgeland, John. "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337." ''Church History'' 43:2 (1974): 149–163, 200.
* {{cite book, title=
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, chapter=C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus 9, chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I/page/574/mode/1up?view=theater, publisher=Cambridge University Press, year=1971, editor-last1=Jones, editor-first1=A. H. M., editor-link1=A. H. M. Jones, ref=CITEREFPLRE, editor-last2=Martindale, editor-first2=J. R., editor-link2=John Robert Martindale, editor-last3=Morris, editor-first3=John, editor-link3=John Morris (historian), location=Cambridge, pages=574–575
* Jones, A.H.M. ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986.
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* Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine'', edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover {{ISBN, 0-521-81838-9 Paperback {{ISBN, 0-521-52157-2
* Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." ''Classical Philology'' 94:2 (1999): 198–209.
* Mathisen, Ralph W.
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* Pohlsander, Hans. ''The Emperor Constantine''. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover {{ISBN, 0-415-31937-4 Paperback {{ISBN, 0-415-31938-2
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* {{cite book , last=Southern, first=Pat. , title=The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine , location=New York , publisher=Routledge , year=2001 , isbn=0-415-23944-3
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{{Refend
External links
{{Commons
Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
*
ttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06341a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia
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Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
{{s-ttl , title=
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Constantine I (27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a Constantine the Great and Christianity, pivotal ro ...
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Constantine I (27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a Constantine the Great and Christianity, pivotal ro ...
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Maximian
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Constantius Chlorus
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Constantius Chlorus
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Constantius Chlorus
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{{s-ttl , title=
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Maxentius,
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Licinius , after2=
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Maximinus Daza ,
G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus,
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Constantine I
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Maxentius
{{s-end
{{Roman emperors
{{Pharaohs
{{authority control
250s births
311 deaths
3rd-century Roman consuls
3rd-century Roman emperors
4th-century Roman consuls
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Caesars (heirs apparent)
Deified Roman emperors
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People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars
Tetrarchy
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Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae
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Damnatio memoriae