Furiiru People
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The Fuliru people (also spelled Fuliiru) are a
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
ethnic group native to the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
."Fuliiru." ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1'' (Jamie Stokes, editor) (2009). Infobase: p. 234.Johan Pottier, ''Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century'' (2002). Cambridge University Press: p. 16.Furiiru
" ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World'' (16th ed) (2009). M. Paul Lewis (editor), 2009. Dallas: SIL International.
They predominantly inhabit the
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
, forming the largest ethnic group within the
Bafuliiru Chiefdom The Bafuliiru Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bafuliiru''), also known as the Bafulero Chiefdom (''Chefferie de Bafulero''), is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in Uvira Territory ...
, located centrally and to the northwest. They also form the primary constituency in the Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom, to the northeast, near the
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
and
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
borders, where some Fuliru communities reside.James Stuart Olson, ''The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary''. Greenwood: 1996, p. 183. According to a 2009 census, their population was estimated at over 250,000, while a 1999 estimate of Kifuliru-language speakers placed the number at 300,000. The Fuliru speak the Fuliru language, a branch of the
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
subgroup within the Niger-Congo family, closely related to Vira, Shi, Havu, Tembo, and
Nyindu Nyindu is an endangered Bantu language The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu language, Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀), or Ntu languages are a language family of about 600 languages of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern, East ...
. Occupationally, Fuliru primarily work in
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
and
herding Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group (herd), maintaining the group, and moving the group from place to place—or any combination of those. Herding can refer either to the process of animals forming herds in ...
, with a notable reputation in
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other raw materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. The place where such wares are made by a ''potter'' is al ...
and
basket-weaving Basket weaving (also basketry or basket making) is the process of weaving or sewing pliable materials into three-dimensional artifacts, such as baskets, mats, mesh bags or even furniture. Craftspeople and artists specialized in making baskets ...
. Their handcrafted baskets are used for storage, decoration, and even as musical instruments. The Fuliru, like many other communities in the eastern part of the DRC, face ongoing challenges related to access to basic needs such as clean water, healthcare, and education. Parenthetically, they face issues related to
land disputes Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all continents and islands. Earth's land surface ...
, political marginalization, and human rights abuses. The Fuliru women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual and
gender-based violence Gender-related violence or gender-based violence (GBV) refers to any kind of violence directed against people due to their gender or gender identification, culture may have a role to play, being lower in egalitarianism societies and higher, sexist ...
amplified by the region's persistent armed conflicts, which have resulted in the prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity.


Bafuliiru Chiefdom

At the onset of Belgian colonization, the establishment of chieftaincies was the primary method of
governance Governance is the overall complex system or framework of Process, processes, functions, structures, Social norm, rules, Law, laws and Norms (sociology), norms born out of the Interpersonal relationship, relationships, Social interaction, intera ...
. These chieftaincies were established with due respect to the customs and traditions of each area, particularly based on three principal criteria defined and established by the Belgian colonial administration as essential conditions for the establishment of any
chieftaincy A tribal chief, chieftain, or headman is a leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. Tribal societies There is no definition for "tribe". The concept of tribe is a broadly applied concept, based on tribal concepts of societies of western Af ...
. This was done to prevent lawlessness and to avoid violating the ancestral realities that had existed for millennia. Belgian colonial administration's criteria for establishing chieftaincies varied based on the region and the ethnic group in question. The establishment of chieftaincies was often accompanied by the appointment of a local chief (''chefs de groupement'') or a traditional ruler who was then tasked with maintaining law and order in the area, as well as ensuring the well-being of the local population. However, the establishment of chieftains was controversial, particularly in areas where multiple ethnic groups co-exist. There were instances where the colonial administration had to navigate complex power dynamics and determine which ethnic group or faction should hold the position of chief. This led to tensions between different ethnic groups and, in some cases, even armed conflict. Each
ethnic group An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, re ...
, however small, was assigned a ''chiefdom'' or a ''sector'', if not, a ''grouping (groupement)''. The administrative territories were thus constituted within the limits of the chiefdom. The aim was to regroup "ethnic units" in their own geographical entities, but this led to such fragmentation that
Orientale Province Orientale Province () is one of the former provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and its predecessors the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo. It went through a series of boundary changes between 1898 and 2015, when it was divided ...
, which included the present-day
Haut-Congo Province Haut-Congo Province was a province of the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville), now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was formed in April 1962 from part of the Orientale Province. In 1966 it was merged back into the reconstituted Orientale ...
and the former
Kivu Kivu is the name for a large region in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo that borders Lake Kivu. It was a ''Région'' (read 'province') of the country under the rule of Mobutu Sese Seko from 1966 to 1988. As an official ''Région'' ...
, comprised up to 2,500 chiefdoms and groups. This approach by the Belgian colonial administration was based on the principle of
indirect rule Indirect rule was a system of public administration, governance used by imperial powers to control parts of their empires. This was particularly used by colonial empires like the British Empire to control their possessions in Colonisation of Afri ...
, which aimed to maintain control over the local population through traditional rulers. This system was viewed as a means of preserving the existing social and political structures of the colonized societies while ensuring their loyalty to the colonial authorities. However, this approach had some negative consequences. The proliferation of chiefdoms and groups created administrative difficulties for the colonial administration, making it challenging to maintain control over such a vast and diverse territory. Additionally, the creation of numerous chiefdoms and groups resulted in the fragmentation of ethnic groups, further exacerbating existing inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts. The Bembe and Buyu were both grouped in the
Fizi Territory Fizi Territory is a territory located in the southern part of South Kivu Province, in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It spans an area of approximately 15,864 square kilometers and shares borders with Uvira Territory ...
, which was further subdivided into five sectors, including Itombwe,
Lulenge Lulenge constitutes one of the four Sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sectors within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu, South Kivu Province, situated in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It spans an area of ...
,
Mutambala Mutambala (or M'tambala) is a sector that constitutes one of the four sectors in the Fizi Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mutambala is situated near Lake Tanganyika, in the west by ...
, Ndandja, and Tanganyika. Conversely, the Bafuliru Chiefdom borders
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
and
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
through the
Ruzizi Plain The Ruzizi Plain (French language, French: ''Plaine de la Ruzizi'') is a valley situated between the Mitumba Mountains, Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR ...
in the
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
. The sandy soil of the plain is suitable for growing crops such as groundnuts and
cotton Cotton (), first recorded in ancient India, is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus '' Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure ...
, with
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
, Lubarika, and Luberizi being particularly noteworthy areas for such cultivation. The Fuliru collectivity is situated in two distinct types of
plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; : plateaus or plateaux), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. ...
s: the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau. The Middle Plateau spans between
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
and Mulenge, with the altitude gradually increasing from 100 m to 1800 meters. This plateau comprises several ''groupements'' and villages, including Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole,
Lemera Lemera is one of the ''groupements'' (Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving as the chief town of the chiefdom. Positioned in the northwestern part of Uvira Territory, Lemera spans a ...
, Bwesho, Katala, Mulenge, and others. It is also a favorable environment for growing
cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
,
coffee Coffee is a beverage brewed from roasted, ground coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content, but decaffeinated coffee is also commercially a ...
,
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
,
bean A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditi ...
s and
maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...
. The High Plateau, on the other hand, form a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and the Elila rivers, as well as the torrents that flow into the
Ruzizi River The Ruzizi (also sometimes spelled Rusizi, French language, French: ''Rivière Ruzizi''; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Ruzizi Rivier'') is a river, long, that flows from Lake Kivu to Lake Tanganyika in Central Africa, descending from about to about ...
and
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
. The High Plateaus are characterized by a rugged landscape with steep slopes and elevations ranging from 1800 to 2700 meters. The main villages located on the High Plateaus include Kagongo, Kishusha, Mulobela, and Kashekezi. These villages are known for their cool climate and are suitable for the cultivation of
crop A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. In other words, a crop is a plant or plant product that is grown for a specific purpose such as food, Fiber, fibre, or fuel. When plants of the same spe ...
s such as Irish potatoes and
bean A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditi ...
s. This plateau is mostly used for grazing cattle and is less populated compared to the Middle Plateau.


Bafuliiru ''groupements'' (groupings)

Bafuliru Chiefdom is subdivided in ''groupements'' (groupings) governed by customary chiefs (''chefs de groupement'') who are appointed by the paramount chief. ''Groupements'' are subdivided in ''localités'' (villages) which are also ruled by customary chiefs. Bafuliru Chiefdom is composed of five ''groupements'': Runingu, Itara-Luvungi,
Lemera Lemera is one of the ''groupements'' (Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving as the chief town of the chiefdom. Positioned in the northwestern part of Uvira Territory, Lemera spans a ...
, Muhungu and Kigoma. The Muhungu ''groupement'' consists of the following villages: The Kigoma ''groupement'' consists of the following villages: The Runingu ''groupement'' consists of the following villages: The Itara-Luvungi ''groupement'' consists of the following villages: The Lemera ''groupement'' consists of the following villages:


Clans

Alternatively, Bafuliru are not a
homogeneous Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, i ...
people; it is an amalgamation of people with diverse backgrounds, a kind of multicultural state, each with distinct origins. To be considered ''Mufuliru'' one must be born into one of the thirty-seven progenitor families (clans) of the ethnic group. The Fuliru people are made up of about 37 clans: * Badaka: The Badaka clan is a smaller clan within the Bafuliru Chiefdom, and is known for their expertise in
metalworking Metalworking is the process of shaping and reshaping metals in order to create useful objects, parts, assemblies, and large scale structures. As a term, it covers a wide and diverse range of processes, skills, and tools for producing objects on e ...
and
blacksmith A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects primarily from wrought iron or steel, but sometimes from #Other metals, other metals, by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut (cf. tinsmith). Blacksmiths produce objects such ...
ing. They have played a significant role in the production of tools and weapons for use by other clans in the region. * Balabwe * Bahatu * Bahamba: The Bahamba clan are one of the significant clans within the chiefdom and played a key role in its
political Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...
and
social history Social history, often called history from below, is a field of history that looks at the lived experience of the past. Historians who write social history are called social historians. Social history came to prominence in the 1960s, spreading f ...
. The Bahambas are well known for their lineage from the
royal family A royal family is the immediate family of monarchs and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or empress, and the term papal family describes the family of a pope, while th ...
and have held leadership positions over the Batumba clan at some point in history. Many clan members hold authoritative positions in
local government Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of governance or public administration within a particular sovereign state. Local governments typically constitute a subdivision of a higher-level political or administrative unit, such a ...
and
community organizations A community is a social unit (a group of people) with a shared socially-significant characteristic, such as place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given g ...
. While they had a historical relation to the
royal court A royal court, often called simply a court when the royal context is clear, is an extended royal household in a monarchy, including all those who regularly attend on a monarch, or another central figure. Hence, the word ''court'' may also be app ...
, they also had an occupancy in
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
,
trade Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market. Traders generally negotiate through a medium of cr ...
, and other economic activities. * Bahange * Bahembwe * Bahofwa * Bahundja * Bahungu * Bazige: The Bazige clan are believed to be descendants of
Hutu The Hutu (), also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic group native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda where they form one of the principal ethnic groups alongside the Tutsi and the Great L ...
s from Burundi who were assimilated through
exogamy Exogamy is the social norm of mating or marrying outside one's social group. The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. One form of exogamy is dual exogamy, in which tw ...
. * Baiga * Bajojo * Bakame * Bakukulugu * Bakuvi * Balambo: The Balambo clan takes charge of the
diadem A diadem is a Crown (headgear), crown, specifically an ornamental headband worn by monarchs and others as a badge of Monarch, royalty. Overview The word derives from the Ancient Greek, Greek διάδημα ''diádēma'', "band" or "fillet", fro ...
detention ceremonies, which involve the safeguarding and presentation of royal headpieces. They are entrusted with the responsibility of preserving the diadems, which symbolize the authority and prestige of the Bafuliru chiefs. * Balemera: The Balemera clan is one of the prominent royal clans within the chiefdom. Along with the Batumba clan, they have been recognized as one of the leading clans within the chiefdom and are known for their workmanship in trade and commerce. * Balizi: The Balizi clan are believed to have migrated to the area from present-day
Bunyoro Bunyoro, also called Bunyoro-Kitara, is a traditional Bantu kingdom in Western Uganda. It was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Central and East Africa from the 16th century to the 19th century. It is ruled by the King ('' Omukama'') of ...
in
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
several centuries ago. They are primarily farmers, and they are known for their cultivation of beans, maize, and cassava. * Bamioni * Banakatanda: The Banakatanda clan is a
matriarchal Matriarchy is a social system in which positions of power and privilege are held by women. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. While those definitions apply in general English, ...
clan, with women traditionally holding positions of power and influence within the clan. They are known for their expertise in
midwifery Midwifery is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period (including care of the newborn), in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives. In many cou ...
and for their role in selecting the next king or queen of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Each powerful clan in the Chiefdom was assigned a role on the royal court, and the Banyakatanda women were appointed as ''kingmakers''. Since a king could be born to any of the king's wives, these women served as ''midwives'' to the queens, tasked with determining whether a newborn was fit to succeed to the throne. Moreover, upon the death of the reigning monarch, only members of these clans could confirm and announce the passing and ensure the rightful successor ascended to the throne. * Banakyoyo * Banamubamba * Banamuganga * Basamba * Bashagakibone: The Bashagakibone clan plays a key role in the solemn process of
mummification A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay furt ...
. Drawing upon ancient knowledge passed down through generations, they possess the sacred expertise required to preserve the bodies of deceased chiefs and noble figures. They ensure that the rituals of mummification are carried out according to ancient traditions, honoring the legacy of those who have passed. * Bashimbi: The Bashimbi clan is a group of skilled farmers, rainmakers, and high-level "
premier Premier is a title for the head of government in central governments, state governments and local governments of some countries. A second in command to a premier is designated as a deputy premier. A premier will normally be a head of govern ...
s" within the chiefdom. They are known for their expertise in producing honey, cereals, coffee, and raising livestock, including
sheep Sheep (: sheep) or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to d ...
,
cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are calle ...
, and
poultry Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
. The Bashimbi are centered around their traditional village of Kalundu, located near the Mizulo hamlet. The clan's founding father, Kashambi, was renowned as the master-maker of the "''bimole''" or torch used for fisheries in Lake Tanganyika. The Bashimbi made a pact with the Bafuliru clan, who shared a sonorous resemblance in the names of their clans. According to several oral accounts and ethnological studies of the Fuliru people, these clans recognized each other as real brothers at a particular time in history. The Bafuliru eventually absorbed the more cunning members of the Bashimbi clan. The name "''Kashambi''" is given to the progeny of the Bashimbi's founding father, who arrived with his adherents and plundered other people's belongings, establishing his dominance through his velocity and colossal throng. * Bashamwa * Bashashu * Basizi: The Basizi clan is believed to be a subgroup of the Bahavu ethnic group and plays a significant role in the chiefdom's religious and spiritual practices. They have helped preserve local customs and traditions * Basozo: The Basozo clan originally came from
Bugarama Bugarama is a town in western Rwanda. Location Bugarama is located in Rusizi District, Western Province, close to the borders with Burundi (to the east) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (to the west). It is about , by road, southwest of ...
in Rwanda and intermarried with the wider Fuliru population to the point where their distinct identity was practically extinguished. Their cultural roots and customs were largely assimilated into the surrounding Fuliru communities. * Bashago * Batere * Batoké * Batumba: The Batumba clan is a prominent royal lineage clan among the
Bavira The Vira people or Bavira (in the plural) are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These people are located in the region of Uvira in the East of the country, on the northeast coast of Lake Tangany ...
and Bafuliru. The Batumbas have been instrumental in shaping the chiefdom's cultural, political, and social landscape. The ''Mutumba'' are the traditional rulers of the Batumba and are considered the most respected members of the clan. The ''Mutumba'' is responsible for overseeing Batumba's affairs and maintaining the clan's customs and traditions. In some regions, the ''Mutumba'' may also hold authority or influence beyond the Batumbas and be recognized as a regional leader. * Bavunye * Bavurati * Bazilangwe


History


Origin

The origin of the Fuliru people, like that of many ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region of Africa, is complex and multifaceted, shaped by
migration Migration, migratory, or migrate may refer to: Human migration * Human migration, physical movement by humans from one region to another ** International migration, when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum le ...
,
colonization 475px, Map of the year each country achieved List of sovereign states by date of formation, independence. Colonization (British English: colonisation) is a process of establishing occupation of or control over foreign territories or peoples f ...
, and conflict. The Fuliru are believed to have originated from the Bantu-speaking people who migrated from
West West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
-
Central Africa Central Africa (French language, French: ''Afrique centrale''; Spanish language, Spanish: ''África central''; Portuguese language, Portuguese: ''África Central'') is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries accordin ...
as part of the
Bantu migration Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle * Black Association for Nationa ...
to Central,
Eastern Eastern or Easterns may refer to: Transportation Airlines *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 192 ...
and
Southern Africa Southern Africa is the southernmost region of Africa. No definition is agreed upon, but some groupings include the United Nations geoscheme for Africa, United Nations geoscheme, the intergovernmental Southern African Development Community, and ...
. Most, however, are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in
Southeast Africa Southeast Africa, or Southeastern Africa, is an African region that is intermediate between East Africa and Southern Africa. It comprises the countries Botswana, Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanza ...
after the initial expansion from
Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...
/
Cameroon Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon, is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the R ...
and settled in the eastern region of the
Democratic Republic of Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
(DRC) in the 16th century. By the mid-1700s, the Bafuliru people had established a significant presence in the region surrounding
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
, specifically in the mountainous hinterland of
South Kivu South Kivu (; ) is one of Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital city, capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is ...
along the
Ulindi River The Ulindi River () is a tributary of the Lualaba River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). There is a proposal to build a hydroelectric power plant on the river to power a gold mining project. Location The river rises in the east of ...
. The Fuliru have a unique history as one of the only highland Bantu groups to have formed a single, relatively small state that was highly centralized. According to
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
, the epicenter of the Fuliru people's migratory dispersion in the middle Lwalaba Basin is located at the mouth of the
Ulindi River The Ulindi River () is a tributary of the Lualaba River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). There is a proposal to build a hydroelectric power plant on the river to power a gold mining project. Location The river rises in the east of ...
. The Mushi historian Bishikwabo Chubaka has chronicled that after migrating from Lwindi near the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterlands, the Fuliru eventually settled in the region now known as Uvira.


Eponym and controversies on chiefdom

The origins of the Bafuliru Chiefdom, prior to its formal establishment as an administrative chiefdom of Uvira Territory in 1928 under Belgian colonial rule, are complex and subject to historical interpretation. Various hypotheses and conjectures have been proposed to explain its emergence. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous, a colonial administrator who extensively studied the
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
communities in eastern
Belgian Congo The Belgian Congo (, ; ) was a Belgian colonial empire, Belgian colony in Central Africa from 1908 until independence in 1960 and became the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). The former colony adopted its present name, the Democratic Repu ...
, noted that the Bahamba clan migrated from the direction of Lwindi, led by Chief Kikanwe, to their present territory, which they found uninhabited. Moeller de Laddersous describes the Bahamba as the region's earliest settlers, in an area known as "Bufulero". Over time, the Bahamba dynasty changed their eponym from Bahamba (Wahamba) to Bafuliru as a badge of their new identity. Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin traces the clan's origins to Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi, believed to have arrived in the 16th century, per Belgian colonial records, or the 17th century, as argued by historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza. Other accounts suggest that the Bafuliru and the neighboring
Vira people The Vira people or Bavira (in the plural) are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These people are located in the region of Uvira in the East of the country, on the northeast coast of Lake Tangany ...
migrated from the northeast, crossing Lwindi and settling in the area. According to the scholar Cuypers, this migration could have included a prolonged detour through
Maniema Maniema Province (''Jimbo la Maniema'', in Swahili) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Kindu. The 2020 population was estimated to be 2,856,300. Toponymy Henry Morton Stanley explored the area ...
rather than a direct movement. Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, settled around the highlands of
Lemera Lemera is one of the ''groupements'' (Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving as the chief town of the chiefdom. Positioned in the northwestern part of Uvira Territory, Lemera spans a ...
, while the Vira, led by Kirungu, established themselves on Munanira's peak, eventually spreading to the valley lowlands and the present-day
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
. Depelchin also observes that both "Buvira" (today's Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) had multiple ''bami'' (also known as "
mwami ''Mwami'' () is an honorific title common in parts of Central and East Africa. The title means ''chief'' or ''tribal chief'' in several Bantu languages. It was historically used by kings in several African nations, and is still used for traditi ...
"). He firmly states that this part of the country (encompassing Bavira and Bafuliru chiefdoms) has never had one paramount chief, as the Bafuliru retained their own independent paramount chief. By 1907, colonial surveys delineated the Bafuliru's ethnic boundaries, which stretched along
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
and the
Ruzizi Plain The Ruzizi Plain (French language, French: ''Plaine de la Ruzizi'') is a valley situated between the Mitumba Mountains, Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR ...
from Moira to the Luvivi River, encompassing territories that sometimes overlapped with Bavira lands.Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza points out that Chief Luhama—a central figure in Bafuliru history and founder of the Bahamba dynasty—consolidated power by dividing his domain among his three sons to foster stability and manage local demands for autonomy. Luhama's strategic division granted his eldest son, Nyamugira, to control the land from Moira to the Munyovwe River; his second son, Mutahonga, received areas from the Munyovwe to the Kise River and the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and his third son, Lusagara, managed the mountainous regions. This arrangement retained centralized control through family ties, with power transferring from father to eldest son. Eventually, some members of the Bafuliru's Balunga clan joined the Bavira, forming a unique group that did not adopt the Bafuliru's original leadership structures. Among other prominent clans, the Bazige (Bazeke or Bahungu), who were given land by Chief Muluta to their leader Ngabwe, either overcame or were assimilated into the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Oral history suggests the Bazige had an autonomous chiefdom in the present-day Muhungu ''groupement'', which they governed under Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, before being conquered and subjugated by Mahina Mukogabwe (often referred to as Nyamugira Mukogabwe II)—a Fuliru chieftain whose reign spanned the period between 1914 and 1927. This union merged two distinct groups, with Kalunga's lineage recognized to preserve
social cohesion Group cohesiveness, also called group cohesion, social harmony or social cohesion, is the degree or strength of bonds linking members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it ...
, mutual trust, and integration within the Bafuliru. Over time, the Bazige adopted the Kifuliiru language, strengthened by intermarriage and economic exchanges, and ultimately accepted Mukogabwe as their Mwami. The formal establishment of the Bafuliru Chiefdom came on 18 August 1928, when it was recognized by the colonial authorities. Kingwengwe Mupe, a Fuliru historian, notes that Chief Matakambo, identified as the son of Mahina Mukogabwe, grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933. Later, on 4 March 1940, Nyamugira, another of Mahina's descendants, was also made chief, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. There is some inconsistency in historical accounts, while some sources uphold the claim that the Bahamba clan played an instrumental role in founding the chiefdom, other narratives indicate that they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their hegemony and royal lineage in the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Kingwengwe Mupe argues that the Bahamba clan drove out (and possibly dethroned) the Balemera clan to occupy Uvira Territory. According to Mupe's account, the Balemera clan can be traced back as the indigenous people who first inhabited the region. It is believed that the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which had its stronghold in Lemera, was the very heartland of their ancestral domain.


Barundi and Banyarwanda migration to Bafuliiru territories


Barundi

In the late 1800s, various groups established themselves in Bafuliru's lands in search of more arable soil. Led by Chief Ngabwe, the Barundi arrived from Burundi and assertively requested land from the Bavira, which they acquired between the Kiliba and Kawezi Rivers in exchange for ivory. As the tides of colonialism encroached across the region, it sparked wars of expansion on both sides. The ''Mwami'' of the Bafuliiru tenaciously claimed jurisdiction over certain villages in the Ruzizi Plain, while the ''Mwami'' of the Plain sought to establish his own authority. In the absence of a resolution, both chiefdoms resorted to warfare to vie for dominance. After Chief Ngabwe consolidated his authority, Chief Kinyoni, a sub-chief under Burundian King Mwezi Gisabo from the Banyakarama Dynasty, established his own presence along the Ruzizi River's right bank. With swift prowess, he conquered southern villages like Kigoma, Mulenge, Kihanga, and Kalengera, expanding his dominion. He then launched a northward offensive, seizing Kiringye, Kabwiba, and Kigwena, nearly half of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Facing significant territorial setbacks, the Bafuliru Chiefdom rebuffed to capitulate and shoved forward to defend Bwesho. Led by the renowned leader Katangaza—a respected and influential figure from Bwesho—they rallied their forces and readied themselves to face the ineluctable advance of Chief Kinyoni and his dexterous warrior, Rubisha. Following their advent in Bwesho, Rubisha and his army encountered fierce resistance from Bafuliru's army, resulting in Kinyoni being callously wounded and succumbed to a spear attack, including his son Rubwatara. His troops were subsequently expelled from every village they had captured. However, Kinyoni's troops managed to retreat to
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
, where they received support from Belgian colonists, who provided them with much-needed resources and supplies. This assistance allowed Kinyoni's troops to regroup and prepare for another attempt to conquer the Bafuliru Chiefdom under the guidance of Katangaza. Despite the setback, the Bafuliiru troops pursued the retreating army and eventually expelled them from Kiringye.


Banyarwanda

During the period of European penetration, the
Banyarwanda The Banyarwanda (, plural; , singular) are a Bantu peoples, Bantu Ethnolinguistic group, ethnolinguistic supraethnicity native to the northern African Great Lakes region, primarily the modern countries of Rwanda and Burundi. The Banyarwanda ar ...
, now commonly referred to as "
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
", emerged as a significant group in the region. The term "Banyarwanda" includes
Hutu The Hutu (), also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic group native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda where they form one of the principal ethnic groups alongside the Tutsi and the Great L ...
s,
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
s, and
Twa The Twa, often referred to as Batwa or Mutwa (singular), are indigenous hunter-gatherer peoples of the Great Lakes Region in Central Africa, recognized as some of the earliest inhabitants of the area. Historically and academically, the term ...
people from Rwanda, who share the same
common language A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...
and
cultural heritage Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by socie ...
. In traditional Rwandan society, a feudal system existed in which Hutus were expected to leave their land available for Tutsis to graze their cows. This arrangement was enforced through a system of
clientelism Clientelism or client politics is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit ''quid-pro-quo''. It is closely related to patronage politics and vote buying. Clientelism involves an asymmetri ...
, where Tutsis loaned their cows to Hutus, who in turn were required to lend their land. Wealth was measured by the number of cows one possessed, and the richest Tutsis had the largest herds. At the top of this social hierarchy was the king, known as the "''
Mwami ''Mwami'' () is an honorific title common in parts of Central and East Africa. The title means ''chief'' or ''tribal chief'' in several Bantu languages. It was historically used by kings in several African nations, and is still used for traditi ...
''", who was believed to possess divine powers and symbolized national unity. The king surrounded himself with Tutsi warlords and Hutu advisers who oversaw the distribution of land. Over time, the Tutsis established a system of serfdom that further marginalized the Hutu people. The Belgian colonial administration formalized and solidified this
social system In sociology, a social system is the patterned network of relationships constituting a coherent whole that exist between individuals, groups, and institutions. It is the formal Social structure, structure of role and status that can form in a smal ...
, ultimately leading to its being perceived as an ethnic divide between Hutus and Tutsis. Between 1935 and 1955, the colonial power of Belgium in the Belgian Congo, which had guardianship over
Ruanda-Urundi Ruanda-Urundi (), later Rwanda-Burundi, was a geopolitical entity, once part of German East Africa, that was occupied by troops from the Belgian Congo during the East African campaign in World War I and was administered by Belgium under milit ...
, officially encouraged and facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to Kivu. The Rwandans who migrated to Itombwe and
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
during this time were predominantly Tutsis, and were favored by Belgian colonists due to their perceived superiority over the Hutus. Unusually in contacts with the Tutsi pastoralists from Banyarwanda group, the Fuliru were neither conquered nor assimilated by them, but instead engaged in trade and occasional
cattle raiding Cattle raiding is the act of stealing live cattle, often several or many at once. In Australia, such stealing is often referred to as duffing, and the perpetrator as a duffer.Baker, Sidney John (1945) ''The Australian language : an examination ...
, leading to a deep and long-lasting
social interaction A social relation is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics within and/or between groups. The group can be a language or ...
that particularly impacted both groups. The Banyarwanda were later leased land starting from Mulenge all the way to Upper Sange from the Bafuliru, in term for the cattle for every time period and many of them settled in remote areas, including Kalamba, the
Ruzizi Plain The Ruzizi Plain (French language, French: ''Plaine de la Ruzizi'') is a valley situated between the Mitumba Mountains, Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR ...
, and the Mulenge hills, before spreading to other parts of southern Kivu. The Belgian colonial administration, through the ''Mission d'immigration des Banyarwanda'' (MIB), facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to other parts of the Belgian Congo. Between 10,000 of Rwandan families were established in various regions of Belgian Congo, including the current
Masisi Territory Masisi Territory is a territory which is located within the North Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its political headquarters are located in the town of Masisi. Overview Masisi territory has an area of 4734 km. Masisi Terr ...
, the Bwito Chiefdom in the
Rutshuru Territory Rutshuru Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), with headquarters is the town of Rutshuru. The territory is mountainous, inclu ...
, the Buzi-Ziralo grouping (''groupement'') in the
Kalehe Territory Kalehe Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering an area of 5,057 square kilometers, it is located northwest and northeast of the provincial capital, B ...
, and Moba in Katanga. Other eastern regions such as
Baraka Baraka or Barakah may refer to: * Berakhah or Baraka, in Judaism, a blessing usually recited during a ceremony * Barakah or Baraka, in Islam, the beneficent force from God that flows through the physical and spiritual spheres * Baraka, full ''ḥa ...
and Marungu were also prepared to welcome the immigrants. This immigration policy was officially supported by the Belgian colonial government, which aimed to promote
economic development In economics, economic development (or economic and social development) is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are improved according to targeted goals and object ...
and expand its control over the region. However, the influx of Rwandans led to tensions and conflicts with the local population, contributing to the ongoing ethnic tensions in the region. Another factor that fostered this immigration of Rwandans was the recruitment of
labor Labour or labor may refer to: * Childbirth, the delivery of a baby * Labour (human activity), or work ** Manual labour, physical work ** Wage labour, a socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer ** Organized labour and the labour ...
. Between the 1920s and 1950s, the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo actively recruited labor for large
mining Mining is the Resource extraction, extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agriculture, agricultural processes, or feasib ...
companies such as the ''
Union Minière du Haut-Katanga The ''Union Minière du Haut-Katanga'' (French language, French; literally "Mining Union of Upper-Katanga") was a Belgium, Belgian mining company (with minority British share) that controlled and operated the mining industry in the copperbelt re ...
'' and
Kivu Kivu is the name for a large region in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo that borders Lake Kivu. It was a ''Région'' (read 'province') of the country under the rule of Mobutu Sese Seko from 1966 to 1988. As an official ''Région'' ...
, particularly in Kalima and
Kamituga Kamituga is a mining town in the Mwenga Territory, South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is located on the east of the Bulega mining region and the western slope of the Mitumba mountain range. As of 2012, it had an estim ...
. Many of these workers were Rwandan and were hired under contract, but they did not renounce their
nationality Nationality is the legal status of belonging to a particular nation, defined as a group of people organized in one country, under one legal jurisdiction, or as a group of people who are united on the basis of culture. In international law, n ...
or
property Property is a system of rights that gives people legal control of valuable things, and also refers to the valuable things themselves. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property may have the right to consume, alter, share, re ...
, which remained in Rwanda. This immigration of Rwandans was also facilitated by the establishment of a chiefdom for the Banyarwanda after the arrival of numerous
laborer A laborer ( or labourer) is a person who works in manual labor typed within the construction industry. There is a generic factory laborer which is defined separately as a factory worker. Laborers are in a working class of wage-earners in whic ...
s brought by
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Miss ...
from neighboring Rwanda.
Monsignor Faustin Ngabu Monsignor (; ) is a form of address or title for certain members of the clergy in the Catholic Church. Monsignor is the apocopic form of the Italian ''monsignore'', meaning "my lord". "Monsignor" can be abbreviated as Mons.... or Msgr. In some c ...
, who was the president of the Episcopate of Congo and the bishop of the Diocese of Goma, acknowledged this historical event in his Easter pastoral letter of 11 April 1998 (French: ''Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998''). In the letter, he stated:
"With us, the main tribes or socio-political communities are called, I quote in alphabetical order: Bahavu, Bahunde, Banande, Banyanga, Barega, Bashi, Batembo. The Banyarwanda (Hutus and Tutsis), at least those who were, those who no longer want this title and those who still identify with this term, will want to understand that, in their case, the notion of "tribe" that they give themselves when they declare themselves Hutu and Tutsi cannot be understood in the same sense as that of the other communities mentioned above. Indeed, unlike that of the Hutus and Tutsis, the Havu, Hunde, Nande, Nyanga and Tembo communities each have their "Mwami" and their "Balu" or "Vakama", who are respectively their heads of state and leading executives in the precolonial context. These communities have their traditional values which are based on their languages, their territories, their customs and their own family, matrimonial, cultural, economic, political and religious organizations. For the case of Hutus and Tutsis, after 23 years already spent in this diocese, I am not able to say the same; how does each of these two Hutu and Tutsi groups constitute a tribe? It is up to them to understand it and convince others of it."


The marginalization of Fuliiru communities

Since the 1960s, the
cohabitation Cohabitation is an arrangement where people who are not legally married live together as a couple. They are often involved in a Romance (love), romantic or Sexual intercourse, sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis. ...
between the Banyarwanda and their Congolese neighbors has been plagued by problems, resulting in serious social tensions and violence. The escalation of these tensions and violence has led to lethal conflict of a social, cultural, economic, and security nature. Human rights organizations estimate that as of May 1996, the total number of deaths from the conflict stands around 70,000. The tension within Bafuliru communities originates from the circumstance where Rwandan refugees, placed by the Belgian colonial administration and the United Nations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, failed to uphold their designated status upon their arrival. Instead, they profess to be a newly established ethnic group known as "
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
" (literally 'those who live in Mulenge') through an entirely fabricated
ethnogenesis Ethnogenesis (; ) is the formation and development of an ethnic group. This can originate by group self-identification or by outside identification. The term ''ethnogenesis'' was originally a mid-19th-century neologism that was later introduce ...
. This emerging identity allowed them to lay claim to land and resources in the area, setting off conflicts with Fuliru, who consider Mulenge as their
ancestral home An ancestral home is the place of origin of one's extended family, particularly the home owned and preserved by the same family for several generations. The term can refer to an individual house or estate, or to a broader geographic area such as a ...
land. Following the nation's independence, the Banyarwanda, both Tutsi and Hutu, striven to establish recognition of their rights as "
indigenous Indigenous may refer to: *Indigenous peoples *Indigenous (ecology) In biogeography, a native species is indigenous to a given region or ecosystem if its presence in that region is the result of only local natural evolution (though often populari ...
", vouching they possessed two "''chefferies''" (traditional chiefdoms) unrecognized by other ethnic groups. The Tutsi contended that their migration to the
Congo Basin The Congo Basin () is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River. The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa, in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as the Congo. It contains some of the larg ...
coincided with that of their Fuliru, Vira, Bembe, and Lega counterparts, antedating the establishment of the
Congo Free State The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo (), was a large Sovereign state, state and absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by Leopold II of Belgium, King Leopold II, the const ...
, and consequently, should be entitled to equivalent ethnic rights as other communities. In 1976, Faustin Tabazi Rugama, a Munyamulenge writer, attempted to legitimize the notion of a tribe called "Banyamulenge" that presumably held sway in Mulenge prior to the
Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 was a meeting of colonial powers that concluded with the signing of the General Act of Berlin,
. This "historical and scientific" apologia was unlikely intended to equate the "Banyamulenge"
pseudo Pseudo- (from , ) is a prefix used in a number of languages, often to mark something as a fake or insincere version. In English, the prefix is used on both nouns and adjectives. It can be considered a privative prefix specifically denoting '' ...
-
tribe The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflict ...
with the indigenous Congolese ethnic groups. Under the pressure of Gisaro Muhoza, a Rwandan university administrator and revered as the creator of the term "Banyamulenge", Rugama used the term in his thesis. According to
René Lemarchand René Lemarchand (born 1932) is a French- American political scientist who is known for his research on ethnic conflict and genocide in Rwanda, Burundi and Darfur. Publishing in both English and French, he is particularly known for his work on t ...
, Banyamulenge constitute a "Rwandan-origin" community that established themselves in the Kivu region and were not known by this name during the colonial period. Using "Banyamulenge" as an ethnic identify, they campaigned for Congolese citizenship along with land possessed by indigenous Fuliru populace.


First and Second Congo Wars

In the early stages of the
First First most commonly refers to: * First, the ordinal form of the number 1 First or 1st may also refer to: Acronyms * Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters, an astronomical survey carried out by the Very Large Array * Far Infrared a ...
and
Second Congo War The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War or the Great War of Africa, was a major conflict that began on 2 August 1998, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, just over a year after the First Congo War. The war initially erupted ...
s, a large contingent of Banyamulenge traversed into Bafuliru communities to provide support to the
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
members of the
Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo The Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (), also known by the French acronym AFDL, was a coalition of Rwandan, Ugandan, Burundian, and Congolese dissidents, disgruntled minority groups, and nations that toppled Mobut ...
(AFDLC). This influx of Banyamulenge played a pivotal role in enabling the AFDLC to seize control of the region from local chiefs and civilians who were uprooted from their ancestral lands against their will. The conflict was marked by brutal violence against the civilian population. On 6 October 1996, Banyamulenge rebels launched an assault on
Lemera Lemera is one of the ''groupements'' (Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving as the chief town of the chiefdom. Positioned in the northwestern part of Uvira Territory, Lemera spans a ...
, a town situated in the north-western region of the
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
in South Kivu Province, resulting in the loss of several dozen lives. A total of 37 individuals, including two
medical personnel A medic is a person trained to provide medical care, encompassing a wide range of individuals involved in the diagnosis, treatment, and management of health conditions. The term can refer to fully qualified medical practitioners, such as physic ...
, lost their lives in a hospital massacre. The armed assailants also pillaged the Lemera Hospital, the largest hospital in the region, located approximately 85 kilometers north of
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
. In October 1998, a large number of people were brutally killed and displaced in Uvira, including the former Mulenge post chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who met his demise on 1 October 1998, at 7:30 p.m. Additionally, Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, was assassinated on 2 October 1998, at 11 p.m. The AFDL troops forced many Bafuliru,
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
, Warega, and
Bavira The Vira people or Bavira (in the plural) are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These people are located in the region of Uvira in the East of the country, on the northeast coast of Lake Tangany ...
individuals to flee and take refuge in neighboring countries such as
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
,
Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...
,
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
,
Kenya Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country located in East Africa. With an estimated population of more than 52.4 million as of mid-2024, Kenya is the 27th-most-populous country in the world and the 7th most populous in Africa. ...
,
Zambia Zambia, officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa. It is typically referred to being in South-Central Africa or Southern Africa. It is bor ...
, and
Mozambique Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique, is a country located in Southeast Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west, and Eswatini and South Afr ...
. The displacement caused a ripple effect of the
humanitarian crisis A humanitarian crisis (or sometimes humanitarian disaster) is defined as a singular event or a series of events that are threatening in terms of health, safety or well-being of a community or large group of people. It may be an internal or exter ...
, with many facing severe challenges, including inadequate food and
water supplies Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. Thes ...
, inadequate medical facilities, and substandard living conditions. On 14 May 2000, the ''Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie'' (RCD), a rebel group comprising mainly Banyamulenge
child soldiers Children in the military, including state armed forces, non-state armed groups, and other military organizations, may be trained for combat, assigned to support roles, such as cooks, porters/couriers, or messengers, or used for tactical adv ...
, perpetrated a
massacre A massacre is an event of killing people who are not engaged in hostilities or are defenseless. It is generally used to describe a targeted killing of civilians Glossary of French words and expressions in English#En masse, en masse by an armed ...
in the village of Katogota. The victims, numbering 375 in total, were primarily from the Bafuliru community and were brutally murdered in cold blood. Some were mercilessly gunned down, while others suffered the grisly fate of having their throats slashed, and their bodies were thrown into the
Ruzizi River The Ruzizi (also sometimes spelled Rusizi, French language, French: ''Rivière Ruzizi''; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Ruzizi Rivier'') is a river, long, that flows from Lake Kivu to Lake Tanganyika in Central Africa, descending from about to about ...
to dispose of the evidence. The rebels also set fire to their homes, leaving many others to burn to death. The horrors of the Katogota massacre caused many to flee their homes, including up to 3,500 Congolese, mainly from the Bafuliru and
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
communities, who sought refuge in
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
on 10 June 2004, to escape ongoing
ethnic persecution An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, economic or religious, the individuals in conflict must expressly fight for their ethnic group's position within so ...
.


Ongoing violence

The ongoing violence in the Bafuliru communities has been exacerbated by
political instability Political decay is a political theory, originally described in 1965 by Samuel P. Huntington, which describes how chaos and disorder can arise from social modernization increasing more rapidly than political and institutional modernization. Huntin ...
,
resource scarcity Resource depletion occurs when a natural resource is consumed faster than it can be replenished. The value of a resource depends on its availability in nature and the cost of extracting it. By the law of supply and demand, the scarcer the reso ...
, and deep-seated mistrust between the various groups. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of different armed groups, including
militia A militia ( ) is a military or paramilitary force that comprises civilian members, as opposed to a professional standing army of regular, full-time military personnel. Militias may be raised in times of need to support regular troops or se ...
s and
rebel A rebel is a participant in a rebellion. Rebel or rebels may also refer to: People * Rebel (given name) * Rebel (surname) * Patriot (American Revolution), during the American Revolution * American Southerners, as a form of self-identification; ...
factions, who compete for control over the region's resources and strategic locations. The proliferation of weapons and the absence of effective governance has allowed these groups to act with impunity, perpetrating horrific acts of violence against civilians and engaging in illicit activities, including the illegal exploitation of
mineral In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid substance with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): Mi ...
resources. The impact of the conflict on the local population has been devastating, with many families displaced from their homes, and their
livelihood A person's livelihood (derived from ''life-lode'', "way of life"; cf. OG ''lib-leit'') refers to their "means of securing the basic necessities (food, water, shelter and clothing) of life". Livelihood is defined as a set of activities essential ...
s destroyed. The absence of adequate humanitarian assistance has only exacerbated the already dire situation, with many facing severe challenges, including food and water insecurity, inadequate medical care, and substandard living conditions. In June 2014, 35 Fuliru were killed in an attack on the town of Mutarule. The attack was believed to be ethnically motivated. The massacres were carried out mainly by Barundi and Banyamulenge rebel groups in a determined, planned, systematic and methodical manner, and were inspired by
ethnic hatred Ethnic hatred, inter-ethnic hatred, racial hatred, or ethnic tension refers to notions and acts of prejudice and hostility towards an ethnic group to varying degrees. It is a form of racial prejudice, based on ethnic origin or region of origin ...
. In January 2019, Twirwaneho and Gumino, a Banyamulenge rebel groups, reportedly torched homes and property belonging to the Bafuliru in the village of Babengwa. Between February 2019 and 2020, a large number of Bafuliru were killed and displaced, leading them to the Bijombo camp in Bavira Chiefdom of Uvira Territory. Despite efforts to prioritize and act on serious cases in the immediate aftermath of the
ethnic violence An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, economic or religious, the individuals in conflict must expressly fight for their ethnic group's position within so ...
, there have been few prosecutions and fewer convictions, as well as a near total lack of investigations of those who organized and financed the violence.


Language

Kifuliru is a member of the
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The English linguist
Malcolm Guthrie Malcolm Guthrie (10 February 1903 – 22 November 1972) was an English linguist who specialized in Bantu languages. Guthrie was a foremost professor of Bantu languages at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London. He is ...
classified it in the D50 subgroup along with Shi, Havu, Vira, Tembo, and
Nyindu Nyindu is an endangered Bantu language The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu language, Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀), or Ntu languages are a language family of about 600 languages of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern, East ...
, placing Kifuliru among the African
Great Lakes Bantu languages The Great Lakes Bantu languages, also known as Lacustrine Bantu and Bantu zone J, are a group of Bantu languages of East Africa. They were recognized as a group by the ''Tervuren'' team, who posited them as an additional zone (zone J) to Guthrie ...
. Achille Emile Meeussen and linguists at the
Royal Museum for Central Africa The Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) (; ; ), communicating under the name AfricaMuseum since 2018, is an ethnography and natural history museum situated in Tervuren in Flemish Brabant, Belgium, just outside Brussels. It was originally b ...
in
Tervuren Tervuren (; ) is a municipality in the province of Flemish Brabant, in the Flemish region of Belgium. The municipality comprises the villages of Duisburg, Tervuren proper, Vossem and Moorsel. On 1 January 2006, Tervuren had a total population o ...
categorized Kifuliru under J54, describing it as an "interlacustrine" language. The Fuliru are connected to the Vira in a Fuliru-Vira culture cluster. Both ethnic groups are interlacustrine, living between the African Great Lakes.Daniel P. Biebuyck, ''Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among a Central African People''. University of California Press: 1973, p. 20 and p. 183. Kifuliru is commonly spoken in the
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
, with over 275,000 speakers. It is
mutually intelligible In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between different but related language varieties in which speakers of the different varieties can readily understand each other without prior familiarity or special effort. Mutual intellig ...
with several neighboring languages, including Nyindu and Vira, with which it shares 90%
lexical similarity In linguistics, lexical similarity is a measure of the degree to which the word sets of two given languages are similar. A lexical similarity of 1 (or 100%) would mean a total overlap between vocabularies, whereas 0 means there are no common words. ...
, and Shi, with which it has about 70% lexical similarity. One notable dialect of Kifuliru is Kivuluga, a fusion of Shi and Kifuliru, which is predominantly spoken in the Itara-Luvungi ''groupement''. This dialect emerged due to the region's close linguistic proximity of Shi and Kifuliru speakers.


Economy


Agriculture and food practices

The Bafuliru economy relies heavily on
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
, with their lands in South Kivu Province among the most densely cultivated in the country. More than 90% of the population makes their livelihood by producing
food crops A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. In other words, a crop is a plant or plant product that is grown for a specific purpose such as food, fibre, or fuel. When plants of the same species ar ...
or through industrial work involving the processing of crops. Principal food crops include
cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
,
corn Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout Poaceae, grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago ...
,
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
, plantains, and, to a lesser extent,
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
s,
bean A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditi ...
s, and
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large ...
s.


Manioc and banana

According to Bafuliru folklore, cassava originated from Lwindi Chiefdom and was introduced by them during their migration. Today, cassava remains a vital food source for the Bafuliru, particularly for those inhabiting the
Ruzizi Plain The Ruzizi Plain (French language, French: ''Plaine de la Ruzizi'') is a valley situated between the Mitumba Mountains, Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR ...
and the entire Bafuliru Chiefdom. Having a cassava field is regarded as a treasure trove and is highly valued by the community. Besides its roots, cassava leaves are also consumable, and its stems are used for
lumber Lumber is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, window frames). ...
. Cassava's significance goes beyond its dietary value and practical uses. It has a significant role in the community's governance, serving as a source of
tax revenue Tax revenue is the income that is collected by governments through taxation. Taxation is the primary source of government revenue. Revenue may be extracted from sources such as individuals, public enterprises, trade, royalties on natural reso ...
. Eighty percent of all taxes collected come from cassava alone. This tax collection method enables tax collectors to fill the state treasury at both community and zone levels, which, in turn, supports the local markets of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. The
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
plant is an adaptable crop that thrives in nearly every region of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It has a significant role in the chiefdom's customs and traditions, particularly during marriage ceremonies. In Fuliru mythology, it is believed that one cannot engage in any strenuous activities without a banana. Specifically, during a wedding ceremony or after mourning, an individual intending to marry must present a
jar A jar is a rigid, cylindrical or slightly conical container, typically made of glass, ceramic, or plastic, with a wide mouth or opening that can be closed with a lid, screw cap, lug cap, cork stopper, roll-on cap, crimp-on cap, press-on ca ...
of fermented banana and sorghum beverage, referred to as "''I mbindi ya mavu yo kudeterakwo''" in Kifuliru, meaning "the jar of alcohol that allows you to speak". This jar of banana alcohol must be offered to the attendees; otherwise, the speaker is unable to convey a meaningful message. The beverage is also called ''Kasigisi''. The banana tree is also ritually associated with
childbirth Childbirth, also known as labour, parturition and delivery, is the completion of pregnancy, where one or more Fetus, fetuses exits the Womb, internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section and becomes a newborn to ...
; the
umbilical cord In Placentalia, placental mammals, the umbilical cord (also called the navel string, birth cord or ''funiculus umbilicalis'') is a conduit between the developing embryo or fetus and the placenta. During prenatal development, the umbilical cord i ...
is sometimes buried near banana fields, followed by a ceremonial gathering two months later where family and friends pour ''Kasigisi'' over the
burial mound Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objec ...
in a festive ritual.


Rice, bean, and corn

Rice grown in the Bafuliru Chiefdom belongs to the
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
''
Oryza ''Oryza'' is a genus of plants in the grass family. It includes the major food crop rice (species '' Oryza sativa'' and '' Oryza glaberrima''). Members of the genus grow as tall, wetland grasses, growing to tall; the genus includes both annua ...
'' and Ozyresatira species. Its various types include IR5, L9, and IRON 282. It is primarily an income generator rather than a food source at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and at the Community Development Center (''Cenre Developpement Communautaire''; CDC) base in Kiringye.
Bean A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditi ...
s are grown predominantly in the central part of
Lemera Lemera is one of the ''groupements'' (Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving as the chief town of the chiefdom. Positioned in the northwestern part of Uvira Territory, Lemera spans a ...
, covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge. They are marketed in
Bukavu Bukavu is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu P ...
and
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
, with a large portion exported to nearby countries like Burundi and Rwanda. While beans, alongside rice, are exported, they usually fetch lower prices due to the local population's modest consumption of these foods as dietary staples. Traditionally, a bean dish is served with cassava '' mbundu''.
Corn Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout Poaceae, grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago ...
is heavily cultivated in the Ruzizi Plain—especially in the Itara-Luvungi ''groupement''—and the Hauts Plateaux, where it serves as the main dietary staple. Most Bafuliru in the Hauts Plateaux consume corn, though not all prefer it.


Peanut and coffee

Peanuts ''Peanuts'' (briefly subtitled ''featuring Good ol' Charlie Brown'') is a print syndication, syndicated daily strip, daily and Sunday strip, Sunday American comic strip written and illustrated by Charles M. Schulz. The strip's original run ext ...
are mainly grown in Luvungi and Lubarika, though they are also present in Lemera and Rubanga. Peanuts are a local treat and are also exported to nearby countries like Rwanda and Burundi. Some are sold in Bukavu. Two types of coffee are grown in the Bafuliru Chiefdom: ''
Coffea arabica ''Coffea arabica'' (), also known as the Arabica coffee, is a species of flowering plant in the coffee and madder family Rubiaceae. It is believed to be the first species of coffee to have been cultivated and is the dominant cultivar, represe ...
'' and ''
Coffea canephora ''Coffea canephora'' (especially ''C. canephora var. robusta'', so predominantly cultivated that it is often simply termed ''Coffea robusta'', or commonly robusta coffee) is a species of coffee plant that has its origins in central and weste ...
''. Among them, ''arabica'' is the most widespread. Exporting coffee to Burundi is a common practice.


Livestock and social structure

In addition to agriculture, the Fuliru are known for their cattle-based economy, which distinguishes them from many other Bantu highland groups.
Livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...
rearing—including
cows Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are called co ...
,
goats The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a species of goat-antelope that is mostly kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the famil ...
, and
sheep Sheep (: sheep) or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to d ...
—is practiced especially by wealthier households and serves multiple roles: providing milk, meat, prestige, and fulfilling social obligations such as
bride price Bride price, bride-dowry, bride-wealth, bride service or bride token, is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the woman or the family of the woman he will be married to or is just about to marry. Bride dowry ...
or ceremonial offerings. Veterinary practices and animal husbandry techniques are employed as part of climate adaptation strategies. Livelihood strategies are heavily influenced by household wealth, with asset ownership (e.g., land size, livestock, solar panels, radios, and mobile phones) determining whether a household is classified as poor, average, or wealthy. Poorer families typically cultivate plots smaller than 0.5 hectares and possess few assets, while wealthier households may own over 1 hectare of land and multiple forms of property. Additionally, hunting and fishing are practiced using traditional methods. Fuliru hunters employ
spears A spear is a polearm consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to t ...
,
machetes A machete (; ) is a broad blade used either as an agricultural implement similar to an axe, or in combat like a long-bladed knife. The blade is typically long and usually under thick. In the Spanish language, the word is possibly a dimin ...
,
dogs The dog (''Canis familiaris'' or ''Canis lupus familiaris'') is a domesticated descendant of the gray wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was selectively bred from a population of wolves during the Late Pleistocene by hunter-gatherers ...
, and traps, while fishing is done with nets, hooks, water diversion techniques, and the use of plant-based poisons.


Culture


Music

Bafuliru music is characterized by a variety of
traditional instruments A folk instrument is a traditional musical instrument that has remained largely restricted to traditional folk music, and is not usually used in the classical music or other elite and formal musical genres of the culture concerned, though related ...
such as the ngoma (drum),
xylophone The xylophone (; ) is a musical instrument in the percussion family that consists of wooden bars struck by mallets. Each bar is an idiophone tuned to a pitch of a musical scale, whether pentatonic or heptatonic in the case of many African ...
, and
flute The flute is a member of a family of musical instruments in the woodwind group. Like all woodwinds, flutes are aerophones, producing sound with a vibrating column of air. Flutes produce sound when the player's air flows across an opening. In th ...
, which are used to create complex
rhythm Rhythm (from Greek , ''rhythmos'', "any regular recurring motion, symmetry") generally means a " movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions". This general meaning of regular r ...
s and
melodies A melody (), also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term ca ...
. The melodic strains of traditional instrument permeate the air, accompanied by the hypnotic rhythm of indigenous dance, which envelops the senses with its entrancing cadence. The ngoma, in particular, is an essential instrument in Bafuliru music, and it is often played during various social and religious events. Bafuliru music also incorporates a form of
call-and-response Call and response is a form of interaction between a speaker and an audience in which the speaker's statements ("calls") are punctuated by responses from the listeners. This form is also used in music, where it falls under the general category of ...
singing, where one group of
singers Singing is the art of creating music with the voice. It is the oldest form of musical expression, and the human voice can be considered the first musical instrument. The definition of singing varies across sources. Some sources define singi ...
will lead with a phrase, and another group will respond with a harmonized phrase. This technique creates a rich and layered sound that is both engaging and captivating. Bafuliru also have
song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...
s that praise their leaders and ancestors, and these are often performed during political rallies and other communal events. Wedding songs are central to the Fuliru
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
. Serving both an educational and entertainment function, these songs convey cultural wisdom, teaching politeness, respect, and environmental awareness to the young couple and the wider community. Before the introduction of literacy in the 20th century, these songs were memorized and performed orally. Through the medium of song, Bafuliru wedding traditions offer insight into their worldview and everyday life.


Religion


Traditional beliefs

Before the advent of
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
, Bafuliru adhered to a traditional belief system centered around the worship of a supreme deity known as Rurema, Nakalema or Nakalemeka, whom they regarded as the creator of all things in both the terrestrial and celestial realms. Rurema was perceived as an invisible and transcendent force beyond human reach.
Intermediaries An intermediary, also known as a middleman or go-between, is defined differently by context. In law or diplomacy, an intermediary is a third party who offers intermediation services between two parties. In trade or barter, an intermediary acts ...
played a crucial role in connecting the people to this deity. Among the most significant spiritual leaders representing Rurema were Mushabo, Budisi, and Mugajalugulu, to whom the Bafuliru turned in matters that seemed beyond their control.


Catholicism

Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
made its initial inroads into Bafuliru Chiefdom with the construction of the first chapel in
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
in 1933, overseen by the parish of Nyangezi in the neighboring
Walungu Territory Walungu Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located within the South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Situated approximately 40 km from Bukavu, it shar ...
. However, the growth of the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
in the region took a notable turn in 1974, when the influence of the
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
community shaped its direction. This influence saw the
diaconate A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian denominations, such as the Catholi ...
of Bibangwa becoming a focal point for anti-Fuliru activities orchestrated by the Banyamulenge. It contributed to the arming of Tutsi groups in the ''Hauts Plateaux''. As a result, the Church was perceived by some as complicit in fostering divisions and hatred between the Bafuliru and the populations of the ''Hauts Plateaux''.


Protestantism

The Bafuliru were introduced to
Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
through
Swedish missionaries Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
David and Svea Flood, who arrived in the Itara-Luvungi ''groupement'' in 1921. Their mission encountered resistance from Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II, who was initially hesitant about foreign religious influences that could threaten traditional beliefs. Despite these challenges, the Floods managed to convert a local boy, a milestone that would eventually lead to the broader acceptance of Christianity within the Bafuliru community. The chief himself later embraced the faith, and through the work of the Floods and their successors, Protestantism gained a strong foothold in the region. By the mid-1920s, following a formal agreement between Uvira's territorial authorities and Protestant missionaries, Protestant churches began to proliferate, with congregations established in key locations such as Lemera, Ndolera, Luvungi, and Kigoma ''groupement''.


Attire

In the past, Fuliru wore
skirt A skirt is the lower part of a dress or a separate outer garment that covers a person from the waist downwards. At its simplest, a skirt can be a draped garment made out of a single piece of fabric (such as pareos). However, most skirts are ...
s of cloth made from
tree bark Bark is the outermost layer of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consist ...
, and
cloak A cloak is a type of loose garment worn over clothing, mostly but not always as outerwear for outdoor wear, which serves the same purpose as an overcoat and protects the wearer from the weather. It may form part of a uniform. People in many d ...
s made of animal hides. These have long been replaced by Western-style clothing. However, handmade beaded
necklace A necklace is an article of jewellery that is worn around the neck. Necklaces may have been one of the earliest types of adornment worn by humans. They often serve ceremonial, religious, magical, or funerary purposes and are also used as sy ...
s and
bracelet A bracelet is an article of jewellery that is worn around the wrist. Bracelets may serve different uses, such as being worn as an ornament. When worn as ornaments, bracelets may have a supportive function to hold other items of decoration, ...
s are still worn. The
woven fabric Woven fabric is any textile formed by weaving. Woven fabrics, often created on a loom, are made of many threads woven in a warp and weft. Technically, a woven fabric is any fabric made by interlacing two or more threads at right angles to one ano ...
s, adorned with intricate patterns of vivid hues have honed their craft over generations.


Architecture and art

Traditional Fuliru dwellings are circular,
beehive A beehive is an enclosed structure which houses honey bees, subgenus '' Apis.'' Honey bees live in the beehive, raising their young and producing honey as part of their seasonal cycle. Though the word ''beehive'' is used to describe the nest of ...
-shaped
huts A hut is a small dwelling, which may be constructed of various local materials. Huts are a type of vernacular architecture because they are built of readily available materials such as wood, snow, stone, grass, palm leaves, branches, clay, hid ...
constructed from wood, reeds, and straw, often enclosed by tall hedges. Homes include a central living area (''Bululi'') and sleeping quarters (''Kisika''). Ethnographic accounts from Frédéric Hautmann describe Fuliru settlements as closely integrated with their environment, using local materials like
clay Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolinite, ). Most pure clay minerals are white or light-coloured, but natural clays show a variety of colours from impuriti ...
, banana fibers, and stones in both domestic construction and ritual practices. Spiritual customs such as placing stones at high-altitude passes while calling for spiritual assistance ("''Kilima mbua'', ''aide-moi''") reflect the sacred dimensions of the landscape. The Fuliru are also skilled artisans and blacksmiths. They traditionally extracted iron from stone (known locally as ''matare'') to manufacture tools such as hoes, machetes, spears,
razors A razor is a bladed tool primarily used in the removal of body hair through the act of shaving. Kinds of razors include straight razors, safety razors, disposable razors, and electric razors. While the razor has been in existence since before ...
, and
knives A knife (: knives; from Old Norse 'knife, dirk') is a tool or weapon with a cutting edge or blade, usually attached to a handle or hilt. One of the earliest tools used by humanity, knives appeared at least 2.5 million years ago, as evidenced ...
.
Woodworking Woodworking is the skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinetry, furniture making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. History Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked b ...
is another prominent craft, producing
canoes A canoe is a lightweight, narrow water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using paddles. In British English, the term ''canoe'' ca ...
,
plates Plate may refer to: Cooking * Plate (dishware), broad, mainly flat vessel commonly used to serve food * Plates, tableware, dishes or dishware used for setting a table, serving food and dining * Plate, the content of such a plate (for example: ...
,
mortars Mortar may refer to: * Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon * Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together * Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind * Mortar, Bihar, a village i ...
, and pestles. Clay is used to make a variety of utensils, including jugs and storage containers. One distinctive practice involves the burial of the
placenta The placenta (: placentas or placentae) is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between ...
in a shallow grave near the home, sealed in a ritual clay pot with holes that, according to local belief, allow the "spirit of the placenta" to remain connected to the outside world.


Funeral rites and social succession

When a Fuliru person died,
mourning Mourning is the emotional expression in response to a major life event causing grief, especially loss. It typically occurs as a result of someone's death, especially a loved one. The word is used to describe a complex of behaviors in which t ...
lasted for five days. If the deceased had given birth to
twins Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy.MedicineNet > Definition of Twin Last Editorial Review: 19 June 2000 Twins can be either ''monozygotic'' ('identical'), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two e ...
, the mourning lasted six days. During the mourning ceremony, the family members of the deceased are shaved. The eldest son is enthroned in the place of the deceased by being handed a spear, a symbol of power that signified that all other family members owed him allegiance. At the same time, the younger brother of the deceased is also enthroned as the guardian of the king (''
mwami ''Mwami'' () is an honorific title common in parts of Central and East Africa. The title means ''chief'' or ''tribal chief'' in several Bantu languages. It was historically used by kings in several African nations, and is still used for traditi ...
'') by being given a machete, symbolizing that he would work for the newly enthroned son. If the deceased had only daughters, no enthronement took place. Instead, a guardian is appointed to watch over the deceased's family. During this mourning period, no family member is allowed to bathe, and if married, they had to stay away from their spouse, as it is considered a taboo.


References

{{authority control Ethnic groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Bantu peoples