Ficaria Verna
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''Ficaria verna'' (formerly ''Ranunculus ficaria'' ), commonly known as lesser celandine or pilewort, is a low-growing, hairless perennial
flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...
in the buttercup family
Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae (, buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family (biology), family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide. The largest genera are ''Ranunculus'' (600 spec ...
. It has fleshy dark green, heart-shaped leaves and distinctive flowers with bright yellow, glossy petals.Functional optics of glossy buttercup flowers
Journal of the Royal Society Interface 14:20160933
Buttercups focus light to heat their flowers and attract insects
New Scientist 25 February 2017
Native to Europe and Western Asia, it is now introduced in North America, where it is known by the common name fig buttercup and considered an
invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...
. The plant is poisonous if ingested raw and potentially fatal to grazing animals and livestock, such as horses, cattle, and sheep. For these reasons, several US states have banned the plant or listed it as a
noxious weed A noxious weed, harmful weed or injurious weed is a weed that has been designated by an agricultural or other governing authority as a plant that is harmful to agricultural or horticultural crops, natural habitats or ecosystems, or humans or lives ...
. It prefers bare, damp ground and is considered by horticulturalists in the United Kingdom as a persistent garden weed; nevertheless, many specialist plantsmen, nursery owners and discerning gardeners in the UK and Europe collect selected
cultivar A cultivar is a kind of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and which retains those traits when Plant propagation, propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root a ...
s of the plant, including bronze-leaved and double-flowered ones. Emerging in late winter with flowers appearing late February through May in the UK, its appearance across the landscape is regarded by many as a harbinger of
spring Spring(s) may refer to: Common uses * Spring (season), a season of the year * Spring (device), a mechanical device that stores energy * Spring (hydrology), a natural source of water * Spring (mathematics), a geometric surface in the shape of a he ...
.


Description

Lesser celandine is a hairless
perennial plant In horticulture, the term perennial (''wikt:per-#Prefix, per-'' + ''wikt:-ennial#Suffix, -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annual plant, annuals and biennial plant, biennials. It has thus been d ...
to about high, growing in clumps of 4-10 short stems, on which the leaves are spirally-arranged or all basal. The leaf stalks have sheathing bases, no
stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole (botany), petiole). They are primarily found among dicots and rare among monocots. Stipules are considered part ...
s, a groove along their upper surface, and two hollows within. The leaves are
cordate Cordate is an adjective meaning ' heart-shaped' and is most typically used for: * Cordate (leaf shape), in plants * Cordate axe, a prehistoric stone tool See also * Chordate A chordate ( ) is a bilaterian animal belonging to the phyl ...
, across, dark-green above with a distinctive
variegated '' Cryptocarya williwilliana'' showing leaf venation and variegated leaves Variegation is the appearance of differently coloured zones in the foliage, flowers, and sometimes the stems and fruit of plants, granting a speckled, striped, or patch ...
or mottled pattern, and pale green below. Purple-leaved varieties are common. The margins of the leaves are sometimes entire (rounded) but more often angled or weakly lobed, with
hydathode A hydathode is a type of pore, commonly found in vascular plants, that secretes water through pores in the epidermis or leaf margin, typically at the tip of a marginal tooth or serration. Hydathodes occur in the leaves of submerged aquatic plant ...
s at the tips. There are two types of roots: dense clusters of thick, pale-coloured elongated
tuber Tubers are a type of enlarged structure that plants use as storage organs for nutrients, derived from stems or roots. Tubers help plants perennate (survive winter or dry months), provide energy and nutrients, and are a means of asexual reproduc ...
s surrounded by patches of short,
fibrous Fiber (spelled fibre in British English; from ) is a natural or artificial substance that is significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering materials often inco ...
roots. Some clumps give rise to long stolons to or more, allowing vegetative spread to produce extensive carpets of plants. It produces large
actinomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...
(radially symmetrical) flowers with a diameter of up to , on long stalks arising individually from the leaf axils or in loose
cymes In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a main axis ( ped ...
at the top of the stem. There are no
bract In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves in size, color, shape or texture. They also lo ...
s. The flowers have a whorl of 3 sepaloid
tepals A tepal is one of the outer parts of a flower (collectively the perianth). The term is used when these parts cannot easily be classified as either sepals or petals. This may be because the parts of the perianth are undifferentiated (i.e. of ve ...
and 7 to 12 glossy yellow petaloid tepals, which are sometimes tinged purple or grey on the back. Double flowered varieties also occur. The
stamen The stamen (: stamina or stamens) is a part consisting of the male reproductive organs of a flower. Collectively, the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament ...
s and
carpel Gynoecium (; ; : gynoecia) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more ...
s are numerous, and the fruit is a single-seeded, shortly hairy
achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple fruit, simple dry fruits, dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and Dehi ...
with a very short
style Style, or styles may refer to: Film and television * ''Style'' (2001 film), a Hindi film starring Sharman Joshi, Riya Sen, Sahil Khan and Shilpi Mudgal * ''Style'' (2002 film), a Tamil drama film * ''Style'' (2004 film), a Burmese film * '' ...
. In several subspecies, tubers are formed in the leaf axils after flowering. It blooms between March and May in the UK.


Distribution

''Ficaria verna'' ''sensu lato'' is native to central Europe, north Africa and the
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
. It has been introduced into Iceland and North America.


Life cycle

Lesser celandine grows on land that is seasonally wet or flooded, especially in sandy soils, but is not found in permanently waterlogged sites. In both shaded woodlands and open areas, ''Ficaria verna'' begins growth in the winter when temperatures are low and days are short. The plants mostly propagate and spread
vegetatively Vegetative reproduction (also known as vegetative propagation, vegetative multiplication or cloning) is a form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment or Cutting (plant), cutting of the parent pl ...
, although some subspecies are capable of producing up to 73 seeds per flower.
Germination Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, ...
of seeds begins in the spring, and continues into summer. Seedlings remain small for their first year, producing only one or two leaves until the second year. Growth and reproduction is poor in dry or acidic conditions, though the plants can handle drought well once dormant. By emerging before the forest
canopy Canopy may refer to: Plants * Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests) * Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes Religion and ceremonies * Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an a ...
leafs out, ''Ficaria verna'' is able to take advantage of the higher levels of sunlight reaching the
forest floor The forest floor, also called detritus or wikt:duff#Noun 2, duff, is the part of a forest ecosystem that mediates between the living, aboveground portion of the forest and the mineral soil, principally composed of dead and decaying plant matter ...
during late winter and early spring. By late spring, second year plants quickly age as daylight hours lengthen and temperatures rise. By the end of May, foliage has died back and plants enter a six month dormancy phase. If disturbed, separation of the plant's numerous basal tubers is an efficient means of vegetative propagation. The plants are easily spread if the prolific tubers are unearthed and scattered by digging activities of some animals and humans. Erosion and flood events are particularly effective means of spread, as the plants are very successful at colonizing low-lying floodplains once deposited. ''Ficaria verna'' exists in both
diploid Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Here ''sets of chromosomes'' refers to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, ...
(2n=16) and
tetraploid Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of ( homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one fro ...
(2n=32) forms which are very similar in appearance. However, the tetraploid types prefer more shady locations and can develop up to 24
bulbils A bulbil (also referred to as a bulbel, bulblet, and/or pup) is a small, young plant that is reproduced vegetatively from axillary buds on the parent plant's stem or in place of a flower on an inflorescence. These young plants are clones of the ...
at the base of the stalk. Subspecies ''F. verna ''ssp''. verna,'' and ''F. verna ''ssp''. ficariiformis'' are tetraploid and capable of colonizing new areas much faster because they produce bulbils in their leaf axils in addition to root tubers. Subspecies ''F. verna calthifolia'' and ''F. verna verna'' are diploid and hybrids between subspecies often create sterile
triploid Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of ( homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one fro ...
forms.


Ecology

Lesser celandine is pollinated by bees, small beetles, and flies, including ''
Apis mellifera The western honey bee or European honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') is the most common of the 7–12 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name ''Apis'' is Latin for 'bee', and ''mellifera'' is the Latin for 'honey-bearing' or 'honey-carrying', ...
'', ''
Bibio johannis ''Bibio johannis'' is a species of fly in the family Bibionidae. It is found in the Palearctic realm, Palearctic.Séguy, E. (1940) Diptères (Nématocères). 367 p., 414 fig. Éditions ''Faune de France'' n° 36Bibliotheque Virtuelle Numerique p ...
'', ''
Phora Marco Anthony Archer (born October 11, 1994), better known by his stage name Phora, is an American rapper and former tattoo artist from Anaheim, California. In 2011, he founded his own record label, Yours Truly. His debut studio album, '' Yours T ...
'', and ''
Meligethes ''Meligethes'' is a genus of pollen beetles in the family Nitidulidae. There are more than 80 described species in ''Meligethes''. Species These 80 species belong to the genus ''Meligethes'': * '' Meligethes amei'' * '' Meligethes atramentariu ...
''. The larvae of '' Olindia schumacherana'' feed on the leaves. It associates with
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi An arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) (plural ''mycorrhizae'') is a type of mycorrhiza in which the symbiosis, symbiont fungus (''Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi'', or AMF) penetrates the Cortex (botany), cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant f ...
.


Fungal and oomycetous pathogens

The leaves are parasitised by the
chytrid fungus Chytridiomycota are a division of zoosporic organisms in the kingdom Fungi, informally known as chytrids. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek ('), meaning "little pot", describing the structure containing unreleased zoospores. Chytrids ...
'' Synchytrium anomalum''; the
rust fungi Rusts are fungal plant pathogens of the order Pucciniales (previously known as Uredinales) causing plant fungal diseases. An estimated 168 rust genera and approximately 7,000 species, more than half of which belong to the genus ''Puccinia'', are ...
'' Schroeteriaster alpinus'', '' Uromyces ficariae'', '' U. poae'', and '' U. rumicis''; the
smut fungi The smuts are multicellular fungus, fungi characterized by their large numbers of teliospores. The smuts get their name from a Germanic word for 'dirt' because of their dark, thick-walled, and dust-like teliospores. They are mostly Ustilaginomycet ...
'' Entyloma ficariae'' and '' Urocystis ficariae''; the
leaf spot A leaf spot is a limited, discoloured, diseased area of a leaf that is caused by fungal, bacterial or viral plant diseases, or by injuries from nematodes, insects, environmental factors, toxicity or herbicides. These discoloured spots or lesions ...
fungi '' Septoria ficariae'' and ''
Colletotrichum dematium ''Colletotrichum dematium'' is a plant pathogen causing anthracnose. ''Colletotrichum dematium'' has a significant role as a cause of anthracnose in the Japanese radishes and its ability to cause rare fungal keratitis in humans. This informat ...
''; the grey mould '' Botrytis ficariarum''; and the
downy mildew Downy mildew refers to any of several types of oomycete microbes that are obligate parasites of plants. Downy mildews exclusively belong to the Peronosporaceae family. In commercial agriculture, they are a particular problem for growers of c ...
'' Peronospora ficariae''. The roots are parasitised by the fungi '' Botryotinia ficariarum'' (the
anamorph In mycology, the terms teleomorph, anamorph, and holomorph apply to portions of the life cycles of fungi in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota: *Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage (morph), typically a fruiting body. *Anamorph: an ase ...
of which is ''Botrytis ficariarum'') and '' Dumontinia tuberosa''.


As an invasive species

In many parts of the Eastern and Northwestern United States and Canada, lesser celandine is cited as an
invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...
. It poses a threat to native wildflowers, especially those ephemeral flowers with a spring-flowering lifecycle. Since ''Ficaria verna'' emerges well before most native species, it has a developmental advantage which allows it to establish and dominate natural areas rapidly. It is mainly a problem in forested floodplains, where it forms extensive mats, but can occur on upland sites as well. Once established, native plants are displaced and ground is left barren and susceptible to erosion, from June to February, during the plant's six-month
dormancy Dormancy is a period in an organism's Biological life cycle, life cycle when growth, development, and (in animals) physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolism, metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserv ...
phase. In the United States, where lesser celandine is considered a plant pest to gardens, lawns, and natural areas, many governmental agencies have attempted to slow the spread of this species with limited success. As of 2014, the species was reported to be invasive and established in 25 states. USDA
APHIS ''Aphis'' is a genus of insects in the family Aphididae containing at least 600 species of aphids. It includes many notorious Pest (organism), agricultural pests, such as the soybean aphid ''Aphis glycines''. Many species of ''Aphis'', such as ' ...
considers ''Ficaria verna'' to be a high-risk weed that could spread across 79% of the United States, anticipating possible impacts to
threatened A threatened species is any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which is vulnerable to extinction in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensatio ...
and
endangered An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...
riparian A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. In some regions, the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, riparian corridor, and riparian strip are used to characterize a ripar ...
species. The U.S. National Park Service's Plant Conservation Alliance recommends avoiding planting lesser celandine, and instead planting native ephemeral wildflowers such as ''
Asarum canadense ''Asarum canadense'', commonly known as Canada wild ginger, Canadian snakeroot, and broad-leaved asarabacca, is a herbaceous, perennial plant which forms dense colonies in the understory of deciduous forests throughout its native range in easter ...
'',
bloodroot ''Sanguinaria canadensis'', bloodroot, is a perennial, herbaceous flowering plant native to eastern North America. It is the only species in the genus ''Sanguinaria'', included in the poppy family Papaveraceae, and is most closely related to ' ...
, the native twinleaf (''Jeffersonia diphylla''), and various species of ''
Trillium ''Trillium'' (trillium, wakerobin, toadshade, tri flower, birthroot, birthwort, and sometimes "wood lily") is a genus of about fifty flowering plant species in the family Melanthiaceae. ''Trillium'' species are native to temperate regions of No ...
'' as alternatives.


As a garden plant

Christopher Lloyd Christopher Allen Lloyd (born October 22, 1938) is an American actor. He has appeared in many theater productions, films, and television shows since the 1960s. He is known for portraying Emmett Brown in the Back to the Future (franchise), ''B ...
is one of several horticulturists who have recommended one of the double-flowered Flore Pleno Group for planting at the base of a hedge next to a lawn. ''
The Daily Telegraph ''The Daily Telegraph'', known online and elsewhere as ''The Telegraph'', is a British daily broadsheet conservative newspaper published in London by Telegraph Media Group and distributed in the United Kingdom and internationally. It was found ...
'' has even given advice on how to plant them, provided by the
Royal Horticultural Society The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity. The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr ...
. Double-flowered plants were noted as long ago as 1625 when one was found by
John Ray John Ray Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS (November 29, 1627 – January 17, 1705) was a Christian England, English Natural history, naturalist widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists. Until 1670, he wrote his ...
. The RHS specialist quarterly publication ''
The Plantsman ''The Plant Review'', published quarterly by the Royal Horticultural Society, is a 68-page magazine "RHS Plant Finder" online lists around 220 named cultivars (many of these may well be very similar; nevertheless, this indicates the interest in the species among gardeners).


Recommended cultivars

Sources: (Double-flowered and semi-double cultivars are unlikely to be invasive as they either cannot set seed or do not often do so. Semi-doubles may occasionally cross with single cultivars, which is probably how some of the most desirable cultivars originally arose.) * Alba Group (cream to white flowers; foliage green or variously mottled with silver and occasional splashes of purple) * Brambling (unremarkable yellow flowers; grown for its small triangular or horseshoe-shaped leaves beautifully mottled with silver-grey and purple-brown) * Brazen Hussy (bright yellow flowers; glossy dark bronze foliage) * Collarette (golden yellow double flowers with neat, button-like centres, green in the middle, and a gappy ring of outer petals; silvery-green leaves often with a central streak or splash of purple-black) * Coppernob (bright orange, single flowers; glossy dark bronze foliage) * Double Bronze (syns. Bowles's Double, Wisley Double) (semi-double rich yellow flowers with reddish-bronze reverse; green foliage streaked with silver) * Double Mud (semi-double flowers, cream petals, muddy purple-brown on the reverse; green foliage mottled with silver) * Flore Pleno Group (fully double yellow flowers, green or greenish purple on the reverse making a neat rounded centre; foliage pale green or dappled with silver) * Green Petal (a curiosity with small double flowers resembling greenish-yellow roses; distinctive green foliage splashed silver, purple and bronze) * Ken Aslet Double (syn. Ken Aslet) (sterile, fully double white, cream at centre, dark purplish reverse to the petals; plain green or slightly mottled foliage) * Salmon's White (single flowers open cream, fading almost to white, purplish-blue on reverse; dark green foliage splashed silver and black) File:White- and yellow-flowered lesser celandines.jpg, Alba Group File:Ranunculus ficaria 'Brambling' 03.jpg, 'Brambling' File:BrazenHussy.jpg, 'Brazen Hussy' File:Ficaria Collarette.jpg, 'Collarette' File:Coppernob.jpg, 'Coppernob' File:Double-flowered lesser celandine.jpg, Flore Pleno Group File:Ranunculus ficaria Salmons White.jpg, 'Salmon's White'


Toxicity

All plants of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) contain a compound known as
protoanemonin Protoanemonin (sometimes called anemonol or ranunculol) is a toxin whose glyosidic precursor ranunculin is found in many plants of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). When the plant is wounded or macerated, ranunculin is enzymatically broken ...
. When the plant is wounded, the unstable
glucoside A glucoside is a glycoside that is chemically derived from glucose. Glucosides are common in plants, but rare in animals. Glucose is produced when a glucoside is hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or decomposed by fermentation or enzymes. Th ...
ranunculin Ranunculin is a glycoside found in many members of the Ranunculaceae, buttercup family, including species of Helleborus, Anemone, Clematis and most commonly Ranunculus. Glycosides are common in plants, where they serve as defense mechanisms again ...
turns into the toxin protoanemonin. Contact with damaged or crushed ''Ficaria'' leaves can cause itching, rashes or blistering on the skin or
mucosa A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body of an organism and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. It ...
. Ingesting the toxin can cause
nausea Nausea is a diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, sometimes perceived as an urge to vomit. It can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, abdomen, or back of the throat. Over 30 d ...
, vomiting,
dizziness Dizziness is an imprecise term that can refer to a sense of disorientation in space, vertigo, or lightheadedness. It can also refer to Balance disorder, disequilibrium or a non-specific feeling, such as giddiness or foolishness. Dizziness is a ...
,
spasm A spasm is a sudden involuntary contraction of a muscle, a group of muscles, or a hollow organ, such as the bladder. A spasmodic muscle contraction may be caused by many medical conditions, including dystonia. Most commonly, it is a musc ...
s, or
paralysis Paralysis (: paralyses; also known as plegia) is a loss of Motor skill, motor function in one or more Skeletal muscle, muscles. Paralysis can also be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory d ...
. In one case, a patient experienced acute hepatitis and jaundice when taking untreated lesser celandine extracts internally as an herbal remedy for
hemorrhoids Hemorrhoids (or haemorrhoids), also known as piles, are vascular structures in the anal canal. In their normal state, they are cushions that help with stool control. They become a disease when swollen or inflamed; the unqualified term ''he ...
.


Treatment

On drying of these plants, the protoanemonin toxin
dimerize In chemistry, dimerization is the process of joining two identical or similar Molecular entity, molecular entities by Chemical bond, bonds. The resulting bonds can be either strong or weak. Many symmetrical chemical species are described as dim ...
s to non-toxic
anemonin Anemonin is a dibutenolide natural product found in members of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) such as ''Helleborus niger'', ''Ranunculus bulbosus'', ''Ranunculus ficaria, R. ficaria'', ''Ranunculus sardous, R. sardous'', ''Ranunculus scelera ...
, which is further
hydrolyze Hydrolysis (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water is the nucleophile. Biological hydrolysis ...
d to non-toxic
dicarboxylic acid In organic chemistry, a dicarboxylic acid is an organic compound containing two carboxyl groups (). The general molecular formula for dicarboxylic acids can be written as , where R can be aliphatic or aromatic.Boy Cornils, Peter Lappe "Dicarbox ...
s.Mithen, S., N. Finlay, W. Carruthers, S. Carter, and P. Ashmore. 2001. Plant use in the Mesolithic: Staosnaig, Isle of Colonsay, Scotland. J. Archaeol. Sci 28:223–234. Cooking of the plants also eliminates the toxicity of the plants and the plant has been incorporated in diets or herbal medicine after being dried, and ground for flour, or boiled and consumed as a vegetable.


Historical herbal use

The plant is known as pilewort by some herbalists because it has historically been used to treat piles (hemorrhoids).Chevallier, A. 1996. The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. New York DK. 258.Chillemi, S. and M. Chillemi . 2007. The Complete Herbal Guide: A Natural Approach to Healing the Body. Morrisville, NC Lulu. 231. Lesser celandine is still recommended in several "current" herbal guides for treatment of hemorrhoids by applying an ointment of raw leaves as a cream or lanolin to the affected area. Supposedly, the knobby
tuber Tubers are a type of enlarged structure that plants use as storage organs for nutrients, derived from stems or roots. Tubers help plants perennate (survive winter or dry months), provide energy and nutrients, and are a means of asexual reproduc ...
s of the plant resemble piles, and according to the
doctrine of signatures The doctrine of signatures, also known as the doctrine of correspondences, states that herbs or animals have physical or behavioral traits that mirror the ailment it can successfully treat. Theological justifications, such as that of botanist Wil ...
this resemblance suggests that pilewort could be used to cure piles.
Nicholas Culpepper Nicholas Culpeper (18 October 1616 – 10 January 1654) was an English botanist, herbalist, physician and astrologer.Patrick Curry: "Culpeper, Nicholas (1616–1654)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (Oxford, UK: OUP, 2004) His book ...
(1616 – 1654), is claimed to have treated his daughter for ' scrofula' (or Kings evil) with the plant. The German vernacular ''skorbutkraut'' ("scurvy herb") derives from the use of young leaves, which are high in
vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription di ...
, to prevent
scurvy Scurvy is a deficiency disease (state of malnutrition) resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, fatigue, and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, anemia, decreased red blood cells, gum d ...
. However, use of lesser celandine to prevent scurvy could be considered a
misnomer A misnomer is a name that is incorrectly or unsuitably applied. Misnomers often arise because something was named long before its correct nature was known, or because an earlier form of something has been replaced by a later form to which the nam ...
, tied to its similar appearance to common scurvygrass (''
Cochlearia officinalis ''Cochlearia officinalis'', common scurvygrass, scurvy-grass, or spoonwort, is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. The plant acquired its common name from the observation that it cured scurvy. Description ''Cochlearia offic ...
''), which shares similarly shaped leaves as well as sharing the german name '' skorbutkraut''. The German '' Hager's Manual of pharmacy practice'' of 1900 states ''Ranunculus ficaria'' 'sic''and ''C. officinalis'' both share this name and use, though there was little documentation of the toxicity of untreated ''Ficaria'' species at the time. Most guides today point out that medicines should be made from the dried herb or by heat extraction as the untreated plants and extracts will contain protoanemonin, a mild toxin. The plant has been widely used in Russia and is sold in most pharmacies as a dried herb. The
protoanemonin Protoanemonin (sometimes called anemonol or ranunculol) is a toxin whose glyosidic precursor ranunculin is found in many plants of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). When the plant is wounded or macerated, ranunculin is enzymatically broken ...
found in fresh leaves is an irritant and mildly toxic but is suggested to have antibacterial properties if used externally. The process of heating or drying turns the Ranunculaceae toxin to
anemonin Anemonin is a dibutenolide natural product found in members of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) such as ''Helleborus niger'', ''Ranunculus bulbosus'', ''Ranunculus ficaria, R. ficaria'', ''Ranunculus sardous, R. sardous'', ''Ranunculus scelera ...
which is non-toxic and may have
antispasmodic An antispasmodic (synonym: spasmolytic) is a pharmaceutical drug or other agent that suppresses muscle spasms. Smooth muscle spasm One type of antispasmodics is used for smooth muscle relaxation, especially in tubular organs of the gastrointestina ...
and
analgesic An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic, antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in s ...
properties. Mesolithic Hunter gatherers in Europe consumed the roots of the plant as a source of carbohydrates boiled, fried or roasted.


References in literature

The poet
William Wordsworth William Wordsworth (7 April 177023 April 1850) was an English Romantic poetry, Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romanticism, Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication ''Lyrical Balla ...
was very fond of the flower, which inspired him to write three poems: "To the Small Celandine," "To the Same Flower," and "The Small Celandine." The third poem begins thus:
There is a Flower, the lesser Celandine, That shrinks, like many more, from cold and rain; And, the first moment that the sun may shine, Bright as the sun himself, 'tis out again!
Upon Wordsworth's death it was proposed that a celandine be carved on his memorial plaque inside
St Oswald's Church, Grasmere St Oswald's Church is an active Anglican parish church in the village of Grasmere, in the Lake District, Cumbria, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building and is notable for a ...
, but unfortunately the
greater celandine ''Chelidonium majus'', the greater celandine, is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the poppy family Papaveraceae. One of two species in the genus ''Chelidonium'', it is native to Europe and western Asia and introduced widely in North Ame ...
''Chelidonium majus'' was mistakenly used. Edward Thomas wrote a poem entitled "Celandine". Encountering the flowers in a field, the narrator is reminded of a past love, now dead. He also remarked on banks of celandines in his early prose work "In Pursuit of Spring" (1913).
C. S. Lewis Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer, literary scholar and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Magdalen College, Oxford (1925–1954), and Magdalen ...
mentions celandines in a key passage of ''
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' is a portal fantasy novel written by British author C. S. Lewis, published by Geoffrey Bles in 1950. It is the first published and best known of seven novels in ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' (1950–1956 ...
'', when Aslan comes to Narnia and the whole wood passes "in a few hours or so from January to May". The children notice "wonderful things happening. Coming suddenly round a corner into a glade of
silver birch ''Betula pendula'', commonly known as silver birch, warty birch, European white birch, or East Asian white birch, is a species of tree in the family Betulaceae, native to Europe and parts of Asia, though in southern Europe, it is only found ...
trees Edmund saw the ground covered in all directions with little yellow flowers - celandines".
D. H. Lawrence David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 – 2 March 1930) was an English novelist, short story writer, poet, playwright, literary critic, travel writer, essayist, and painter. His modernist works reflect on modernity, social alienation ...
mentions celandines frequently in ''
Sons and Lovers ''Sons and Lovers'' is a 1913 novel by the English writer D. H. Lawrence. It traces emotional conflicts through the protagonist, Paul Morel, and his suffocating relationships with a demanding mother and two very different lovers, which exert ...
''. They appear to be a favorite of the protagonist, Paul Morel:
...going down the hedgeside with the girl, he noticed the celandines, scalloped splashes of gold, on the side of the ditch. 'I like them,' he said, 'when their petals go flat back with the sunshine. They seem to be pressing themselves at the sun.' And then the celandines ever after drew her with a little spell. Chapter 6: Death in the family
Tove Jannson mentions it in her Summer Book collection of stories,
The first to come up was the scurvywort, only an inch high, but vital to seamen who live on ship's biscuit.


See also

*
Buttercup family Ranunculaceae (, buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide. The largest genera are ''Ranunculus'' (600 species), ''Delphinium ...
*
Ancient woodland In the United Kingdom, ancient woodland is that which has existed continuously since 1600 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (or 1750 in Scotland). The practice of planting woodland was uncommon before those dates, so a wood present in 1600 i ...


References


External links


Species Profile - Fig Buttercup (''Ranunculus ficaria'')
National Invasive Species Information Center,
United States National Agricultural Library The United States National Agricultural Library (NAL) is one of the world's largest agricultural research libraries, and serves as a national library of the United States and as the library of the United States Department of Agriculture. Locate ...
. Lists general information and resources for Fig Buttercup.
Traditional and Modern Use of Lesser Celandine
{{Taxonbar, from=Q157557, from2=Q19796483 verna Medicinal plants Flora of Europe Flora of Western Asia Flora of Lebanon Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus