Fanna Khusraw
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Fannā (Panāh) Khusraw (), better known by his
laqab Arabic names have historically been based on a long naming system. Many people from Arabic-speaking and also non-Arab Muslim countries have not had given name, given, middle name, middle, and family names but rather a chain of names. This system ...
of ʿAḍud al-Dawla (; 24 September 936 – 26 March 983) was an
emir Emir (; ' (), also Romanization of Arabic, transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic language, Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocratic, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person po ...
of the
Buyid dynasty The Buyid dynasty or Buyid Empire was a Zaydi and later Twelver Shi'a dynasty of Daylamite origin. Founded by Imad al-Dawla, they mainly ruled over central and southern Iran and Iraq from 934 to 1062. Coupled with the rise of other Iranian dyn ...
, ruling from 949 to 983. At the height of his power, he ruled an empire stretching from
Makran Makran (), also mentioned in some sources as ''Mecran'' and ''Mokrān'', is the southern coastal region of Balochistan. It is a semi-desert coastal strip in the Balochistan province in Pakistan and in Iran, along the coast of the Gulf of Oman. I ...
to
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
and the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...
. He is widely regarded as the greatest monarch of the Buyid dynasty, and by the end of his reign he was the most powerful ruler in the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
.


Early life

Fanna Khusraw was born in
Isfahan Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
on 24 September 936. He was the son of
Rukn al-Dawla Hasan (died September 976), better known by his ''laqab'' as Rukn al-Dawla ( Persian: رکن‌الدوله دیلمی), was the first Buyid amir of northern and central Iran (c. 935–976). He was the son of Buya. Struggle for power Hasan was ...
, the brother of
Imad al-Dawla Ali ibn Buya (, ), commonly known by his ''laqab'' (honorific epithet) Imad al-Dawla (; c. 891/2 – December 949), was the founder of the Buyid amirate of Fars, ruling as its ''amir'' (ruler) from 934 to 949. Together with his two younger bro ...
and
Mu'izz al-Dawla Ahmad ibn Buya (Persian language, Persian: احمد بن بویه, died April 8, 967), after 945 better known by his ''laqab'' of Mu'izz al-Dawla (, "Fortifier al-Dawla, of the Dynasty"), was the first of the Buyid emirs of Iraq (region), Iraq, ...
. According to
Ibn Isfandiyar Baha al-Din Muhammad ibn Hasan ibn Isfandiyar (), commonly known as Ibn Isfandiyar (), was a 13th-century Iranian historian from Tabaristan who wrote a history of his native province, the ''Tarikh-i Tabaristan''. What little is known of his life ...
, Fanna Khusraw's mother was the daughter of the
Daylamite The Daylamites or Dailamites (Middle Persian: ''Daylamīgān''; ''Deylamiyān'') were an Iranian people inhabiting the Daylam—the mountainous regions of northern Iran on the southwest coast of the Caspian Sea, now comprising the southeastern ...
Firuzanid nobleman
al-Hasan ibn al-Fairuzan Al-Hasan ibn al-Fairuzan () (fl. 10th century) was a Daylamite prince from the Firuzanid family. Biography Al-Hasan was the son of Fairuzan, a Daylamite soldier who, along with his brother Kaki, served the Alid dynasties of northern Iran.Na ...
, who was the cousin of the prominent Daylamite military leader
Makan ibn Kaki Abu Mansur Makan ibn Kaki (died 25 December 940) was a Daylamite military leader active in northern Iran (esp. Tabaristan and western Khurasan) in the early 10th century. He became involved in the succession disputes of the Alids of Tabaristan, ...
. In 948, Fanna Khusraw was chosen by his uncle Imad al-Dawla as his successor because he had no heir. Imad al-Dawla died in December 949, and thus Fanna Khusraw became the new ruler of Fars. However, this appointment was not accepted by a group of Daylamite officers, who shortly rebelled against Fanna Khusraw. Rukn al-Dawla quickly left for southern
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
to save his son, and was joined by the ''
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
'' of Mu'izz al-Dawla for the same purpose. Together they defeated the rebels and put Fanna Khusraw on the throne in
Shiraz Shiraz (; ) is the List of largest cities of Iran, fifth-most-populous city of Iran and the capital of Fars province, which has been historically known as Pars (Sasanian province), Pars () and Persis. As of the 2016 national census, the popu ...
. Fanna Khusraw then requested the title of "Taj al-Dawla" (Crown of the state) from the
Abbasid caliph The Abbasid caliphs were the holders of the Islamic title of caliph who were members of the Abbasid dynasty, a branch of the Quraysh tribe descended from the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The family came ...
. However, to Mu'izz al-Dawla, the title of "Taj" ("crown") implied that Fanna Khusraw was the superior ruler of the Buyid Empire, provoking a reaction from him, and making him decline Fanna Khusraw's request. A more suitable title ("Adud al-Dawla") ("Pillar of the
Abbasid dynasty The Abbasid dynasty or Abbasids () were an Arab dynasty that ruled the Abbasid Caliphate between 750 and 1258. They were from the Qurayshi Hashimid clan of Banu Abbas, descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The Abbasid Caliphate is divid ...
") was instead chosen. Adud al-Dawla was only thirteen when he was crowned as the ruler of Fars, and was educated there by his tutor
Abu 'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid Abu 'l-Fadl Muhammad ibn Abi Abdallah al-Husayn ibn Muhammad al-Katib, commonly known after his father as Ibn al-'Amid (died 970) was a Persian statesman who served as the ''vizier'' of the Buyid ruler Rukn al-Dawla for thirty years, from 940 ...
.


Reign


Rule in Fars

The son of
Rukn al-Dawla Hasan (died September 976), better known by his ''laqab'' as Rukn al-Dawla ( Persian: رکن‌الدوله دیلمی), was the first Buyid amir of northern and central Iran (c. 935–976). He was the son of Buya. Struggle for power Hasan was ...
, Fanna Khusraw was given the title of Adud al-Dawla by the
Abbasid caliph The Abbasid caliphs were the holders of the Islamic title of caliph who were members of the Abbasid dynasty, a branch of the Quraysh tribe descended from the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The family came ...
in 948 when he was made emir of Fars after the death of his childless uncle
Imad al-Dawla Ali ibn Buya (, ), commonly known by his ''laqab'' (honorific epithet) Imad al-Dawla (; c. 891/2 – December 949), was the founder of the Buyid amirate of Fars, ruling as its ''amir'' (ruler) from 934 to 949. Together with his two younger bro ...
, after which Rukn al-Dawla became the senior emir of the Buyids. In 974 Adud al-Dawla was sent by his father to save his cousin
Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar (, died 978), better known by his ''laqab'' of Izz al-Dawla (), was the Buyid amir of Iraq (967–978). Early life Izz al-Dawla was born as ''Bakhtiyar'', and was the son of Mu'izz al-Dawla. He also had three brothers named Sanad al ...
from a rebellion. After defeating the rebel forces, he claimed the emirate of
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
for himself, and forced his cousin to abdicate. His father, however, became angered by this decision and restored Izz al-Dawla. After the death of Adud al-Dawla's father, his cousin rebelled against him, but was defeated. Adud al-Dawla became afterwards the sole ruler of the Buyid dynasty and assumed the ancient Iranian title of
Shah Shāh (; ) is a royal title meaning "king" in the Persian language.Yarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII, no. 1 (1989) Though chiefly associated with the monarchs of Iran, it was also used to refer to the leaders of numerous Per ...
anshah ("King of Kings"). When Adud al-Dawla became emir of Iraq, the capital city,
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
, was suffering from violence and instability owing to sectarian conflict. In order to bring peace and stability to the city, he banned public demonstrations and polemics. At the same time, he patronized a number of
Shia Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...
scholars such as
al-Mufid Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man al-'Ukbari al-Baghdadi, known as al-Shaykh al-Mufid () and Ibn al-Mu'allim (c.9481022 CE), was a prominent Iraqi Twelver Shia theologian. His father was a teacher (''mu'allim''), hence the na ...
, and sponsored the renovation of a number of important Shia shrines. After the death of Imad al-Dawla in 949, Adud al-Dawla's father Rukn al-Dawla, who was the most powerful of the Buyid rulers, claimed the title of senior emir, which Mu'izz al-Dawla and Adud al-Dawla recognized. In 955, a Daylamite military officer named Muhammad ibn Makan seized Isfahan from Rukn al-Dawla. Adud al-Dawla then marched towards the city and recaptured it from Muhammad ibn Makan. Another Daylamite military officer named
Ruzbahan Ruzbahan ibn Vindadh-Khurshid (), better known as Ruzbahan (also spelled as Rezbahan), was a Daylamite military officer who served the Buyid dynasty. A native of Daylam, Ruzbahan began serving the Buyids at an unknown date and quickly rose into hi ...
also shortly rebelled against Mu'izz al-Dawla, while his brother Bullaka rebelled against Adud al-Dawla at Shiraz. Abu 'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid, however, managed to suppress the rebellion. In 966, Adud al-Dawla and Mu'izz al-Dawla made a campaign to impose Buyid rule in
Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
. Mu'izz al-Dawla died in 967, and was succeeded by his eldest son
Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar (, died 978), better known by his ''laqab'' of Izz al-Dawla (), was the Buyid amir of Iraq (967–978). Early life Izz al-Dawla was born as ''Bakhtiyar'', and was the son of Mu'izz al-Dawla. He also had three brothers named Sanad al ...
as emir of
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
. The same year, Adud al-Dawla aided the
Ziyarid The Ziyarid dynasty () was an Iranian peoples, Iranian dynasty of Gilaki people, Gilaki origin that ruled Tabaristan from 931 to 1090 during the Iranian Intermezzo period. The empire rose to prominence during the leadership of Mardavij. After his ...
Bisutun Bisutun () (died 977) was the ruler of the Ziyarids (967–977). He was the eldest son of Vushmgir. During his father's lifetime, Bisutun was the governor of Tabaristan Amol. Upon Vushmgir's death in 967 during a hunting expedition, he went to Gurg ...
in securing the Ziyarid throne from his brother Qabus. Adud al-Dawla and Bisutun then made an alliance, and Bisutun married a daughter of Adud al-Dawla, while he married a daughter of Bisutun.


Campaigns in eastern Iran

In 967, Adud al-Dawla took advantage of the quarrel between the Ilyasid ruler Muhammad ibn Ilyas and his son in
Kerman Kerman (; ) is a city in the Central District (Kerman County), Central District of Kerman County, Kerman province, Kerman province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. History Kerman was founded as a def ...
to annex the province to his domain. Mu'izz al-Dawla had already attempted to conquer the province but was defeated by the Ilyasids. Adud al-Dawla conquered all of Kerman, and appointed his son
Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris () (c. 960-September 7, 988 or September 6, 989) was the Buyid amir of Kerman and Fars (983-988/9), as well as Iraq (987-988/9). He was the eldest son of 'Adud al-Dawla. Early life When Kerman was conquered by his father ...
as the viceroy of the province, while a Daylamite officer named Kurkir ibn Justan was appointed as the chief captain of the army of Kerman. In the next year, Adud al-Dawla negotiated peace with the
Saffarid The Saffarid dynasty () was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian origin that ruled over parts of Persia, Greater Khorasan, and eastern Makran from 861 to 1002. One of the first indigenous Persian dynasties to emerge after the Islamic conque ...
ruler
Khalaf ibn Ahmad Abu Ahmad Wali 'l-Dawla Khalaf ibn Ahmad (November 937 – March 1009) was the Saffarid amir of Sistan from 963 until 1002. Although he was renowned in the eastern Islamic world as a scholar, his reign was characterized by violence and instabilit ...
, who agreed to recognize Buyid authority. In 969/970, Sulaiman, the son of Muhammad ibn Ilyas, wanted to regain his kingdom of Kerman, and invaded the region. Adud al-Dawla managed to defeat the army of Sulaiman and continued to expand his domains to the
strait of Hormuz The Strait of Hormuz ( ''Tangeh-ye Hormoz'' , ''Maḍīq Hurmuz'') is a strait between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean and is one of the world's most strategica ...
. During his campaign in southern Iran, many Iranian tribes converted to Islam and pledged allegiance to him. In August/September 971, Adud al-Dawla launched a punitive expedition against the Baloch tribes who had declared independence. Adud al-Dawla defeated them on 8 January 972, and installed loyal landowners to control the region. Afterwards, Adud al-Dawla and his father Rukn al-Dawla signed a peace treaty with the Samanids by paying them 150,000
dinar The dinar () is the name of the principal currency unit in several countries near the Mediterranean Sea, with a more widespread historical use. The English word "dinar" is the transliteration of the Arabic دينار (''dīnār''), which was bor ...
s. In the same year, Adud al-Dawla conquered most of Oman, including its capital,
Sohar Sohar () is the capital and largest city of the Al Batinah North Governorate in Oman. An ancient capital of the country that once served as an important Islamic port town on the Gulf of Oman, Sohar has also been credited as the mythical birthp ...
.


Rebellion of Sebük-Tegin and aftermath

In 974, Izz al-Dawla was trapped in
Wasit Wasit (, ) was an early Islamic city in Iraq. It was founded in the 8th century by the Umayyad viceroy of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, to serve as the region's seat and as the garrison of the Syrian troops who enforced Umayyad rule there. It was ...
by his troops who, under their leader,
Sebük-Tegin Sabuktakin or Sübüktegin was a Turkic commander in the service of the Buyid dynasty. His power was such that he defied the Buyid ruler Bakhtiyar Izz al-Dawla, and even rose in revolt against him in 974, seizing control of Baghdad and threateni ...
, had rebelled against him. Adud al-Dawla quickly left Fars to quell the rebellion, where he inflicted a decisive defeat on the rebels on 30 January 975, who under their new leader,
Alptakin Alptakin (also known as Aftakin) was a Turkish military officer of the Buyids, who participated, and eventually came to lead, an unsuccessful rebellion against them in Iraq from 973 to 975. Fleeing west with 300 followers, he exploited the power v ...
, fled to
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
. Adud al-Dawla then forced Izz al-Dawla to abdicate in his favor on 12 March 975. Rukn al-Dawla, greatly angered at this action, complained to Adud al-Dawla that the line of Mu'izz al-Dawla could not be removed from power. Adud al-Dawla tried to make amends with his father by offering tribute to him, but Rukn al-Dawla rejected his offer, and then restored Izz al-Dawla as the ruler of Iraq. The consequences of the restoration would later lead to war between Izz al-Dawla and Adud al-Dawla after Rukn al-Dawla's death. In 975 Adud al-Dawla launched an expedition to take Bam and defeated another son of Muhammad ibn Ilyas who sought to reconquer Kerman.


Struggle for power in Iraq and war with the Hamdanids

On 16 September 976, Rukn al-Dawla, the last of the first generation Buyids, died. After his death, Izz al-Dawla prepared to take revenge against Adud al-Dawla. He made an alliance with his brother,
Fakhr al-Dawla Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Hasan (), better known by his ''laqab'' of Fakhr al-Dawla (, "Pride of the Dynasty") (died October or November 997) was the Buyid amir of Jibal (976–980, 984–997), Hamadan (984–997) and Gurgan and Tabaristan (984 ...
, his father's successor to the territories around
Hamadan Hamadan ( ; , ) is a mountainous city in western Iran. It is located in the Central District of Hamadan County in Hamadan province, serving as the capital of the province, county, and district. As of the 2016 Iranian census, it had a po ...
. He also made an alliance with the
Hamdanids The Hamdanid dynasty () was a Islam, Shia Muslim Arab dynasty that ruled modern day Northern Mesopotamia and Bilad al-Sham , Syria (890–1004). They descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib tribe of Mesopotamia and Arabia. History Origin ...
of northern Iraq, the
Hasanwayhid The Hasanwayhids or Hasanuyids ( Kurdish: حەسنەوییەکان) were a Shia Kurdish dynasty reigning the western parts of Iran such as Iranian Azerbaijan and Zagros Mountains between Shahrizor and Khuzestan from c. 959 to 1015. The last Hasan ...
ruler
Hasanwayh Hasanwayh (also spelled Hasanuya), Hasanwayh Al-Kurdi also known as Abu'l-Fawaris, was the Kurdish ruler and founder of the Hasanwayhid dynasty, ruling from 961 to 979. Hasanwayh supported the Buyids against the Samanids which enabled him in g ...
, and the ruler of the marshy areas of southern Iraq. However,
Mu'ayyad al-Dawla Abu Mansur Buya (; died 983), better known by his laqab, honorific title of Mu'ayyad al-Dawla () was the Buyid amir of Hamadan (976–983), Jibal (977–983), Tabaristan (980–983), and Gorgan (981–983). He was the third son of Rukn al-Dawla. ...
, the third son of Rukn al-Dawla, remained loyal to his eldest brother. Izz al-Dawla then stopped recognizing the rule of his cousin Adud al-Dawla, and stopped mentioning his name during Friday prayers. Adud al-Dawla, greatly outraged by his cousin, marched towards
Khuzestan Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...
and easily defeated him in
Ahvaz Ahvaz (; ) is a city in the Central District of Ahvaz County, Khuzestan province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is home to Persians, Arabs and other groups such as Qashqai and Kurds. Languages spok ...
on 1 July 977. Izz al-Dawla then asked Adud al-Dawla for permission to retire and settle in Syria. However, on the road to Syria, Izz al-Dawla became convinced by
Abu Taghlib Uddat al-Dawla Abu Taghlib Fadl Allah al-Ghadanfar al-Hamdani (), usually known simply by his as Abu Taghlib, was the third Hamdanid ruler of the Emirate of Mosul, encompassing most of the Jazira. His reign was troubled, being marked by conflic ...
, the Hamdanid ruler of
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
, to go fight again against his cousin. On 29 May 978, Izz al-Dawla, along with Abu Taghlib, invaded the domains of Adud al-Dawla and fought against him near
Samarra Samarra (, ') is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. The modern city of Samarra was founded in 836 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim as a new administrative capital and mi ...
. Izz al-Dawla was once again defeated, and was captured and executed at the orders of Adud al-Dawla. Adud al-Dawla then marched to Mosul and captured the city, which forced Abu Taghlib to flee to the Byzantine region of Anzitene, where he asked for aid. Adud al-Dawla then spent one year in Mosul to consolidate his power, while his army was completing the conquest of
Diyar Bakr Diyar Bakr () is the medieval Arabic name of the northernmost of the three provinces of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), the other two being Diyar Mudar and Diyar Rabi'a. According to the medieval geographer al-Baladhuri, all three provinces were ...
and
Diyar Mudar Diyar Mudar () is the medieval Arabic name of the westernmost of the three provinces of al-Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), the other two being Diyar Bakr and Diyar Rabi'a. According to the medieval geographer al-Baladhuri, all three provinces were ...
. The important
Hamdanid The Hamdanid dynasty () was a Shia Muslim Arab dynasty that ruled modern day Northern Mesopotamia and Syria (890–1004). They descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib tribe of Mesopotamia and Arabia. History Origin The Hamdanids hailed ...
city of Mayyafariqin was shortly captured by them, which forced Abu Taghlib to flee to Rahba from where he tried to negotiate peace with Adud al-Dawla. Unlike the rest of the Buyids who had held the region temporarily, Adud al-Dawla had complete control of the region during the rest of his reign. Adud al-Dawla, now the ruler of Iraq, then took control of the territories under the control of the
Bedouins The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
and
Kurds Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...
. He also killed almost all the sons of Hasanwayh, and appointed
Badr ibn Hasanwayh Badr ibn Hasanwayh was the second ruler of the Hasanwayhids from 979 to 1014. He was the son and successor of Hasanwayh (). Biography During the civil war between the two Buyid brothers Adud al-Dawla () and Izz al-Dawla (), Hasanwayh had sup ...
, the last surviving son of Hasanwayh, as the ruler of the Hasanwayhid dynasty. He then subdued the Shayban tribe, and fought against Hasan ibn 'Imran, the ruler of
Batihah The Batihah () was a geographical and political unit in Iraq in the 10th and 11th centuries. It was also known as The Great Swamp or The Marsh. Geographical description The Batihah was an area in which, at the time, both the Tigris and the Euphrat ...
. He was, however, defeated, and made peace with Hasan who agreed to recognize his authority. During the same period, Adud al-Dawla had Izz al-Dawla's former ''vizier''
Ibn Baqiyya Abu Tahir Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Baqiyya, also known as Nasir-al-Dawla, Naseh, best known as Ibn Baqiyya, was a statesman of the Buyid dynasty, who served as the vizier of Izz al-Dawla from 973 to 977. Biography A native of Awana, a place nea ...
arrested, blinded, and then trampled to death by elephants. His corpse was thereafter impaled at the head of the bridge in
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
, where it would remain until Adud al-Dawla's death.


War in northern Iran

During the same period, Bisutun died, and his kingdom was thrown into civil war; his governor of
Tabaristan Tabaristan or Tabarestan (; ; from , ), was a mountainous region located on the Caspian coast of northern Iran. It corresponded to the present-day province of Mazandaran, which became the predominant name of the area from the 11th-century onward ...
, Dubaj ibn Bani, supported his son as the new Ziyarid ruler, while Bisutun's brother
Qabus Qabus ibn Wushmagir (full name: ''Abol-Hasan Qābūs ibn Wušmagīr ibn Ziyar Sams al-maʿālī'', ; (died 1012) (r. 977–981; 997–1012) was the Ziyarid ruler of Gurgan and Tabaristan in medieval Iran. His father was Vushmgir and his mother ...
claimed the throne for himself. Adud al-Dawla quickly sent an army to aid Qabus against Dubaj. Qabus managed to defeat him and capture the son of Bisutun in Simnan. Adud al-Dawla then made the Abbasid caliph give Qabus the title of ''Shams al-Ma'ali.'' In May 979, Adud al-Dawla invaded the territories of his brother Fakhr al-Dawla, who was forced to flee to
Qazvin Qazvin (; ; ) is a city in the Central District (Qazvin County), Central District of Qazvin County, Qazvin province, Qazvin province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is the largest city in the provi ...
and then to
Nishapur Nishapur or Neyshabur (, also ) is a city in the Central District (Nishapur County), Central District of Nishapur County, Razavi Khorasan province, Razavi Khorasan province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district. Ni ...
, a large part of his troops deserted. Adud al-Dawla then moved to Kerman and later
Kermanshah Kermanshah is a city in the Central District (Kermanshah County), Central District of Kermanshah province, Kermanshah province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. The city is from Tehran in the western pa ...
where he set up a governor. In August/September 980, Adud al-Dawla captured Hamadan and occupied the south and east area of the city. Shortly after, in October/November of the same year,
Sahib ibn Abbad Abu’l-Qāsim Ismāʿīl ibn ʿAbbād ibn al-ʿAbbās (; born 938 - died 30 March 995), better known as Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād (), also known as al-Ṣāḥib (), was a Persian scholar and statesman, who served as the grand vizier of the Buyid ...
, the ''vizier'' of Adud al-Dawla's younger brother Mu'ayyad al-Dawla, arrived from Ray to negotiate a transfer of power in the city in favor of his master. Adud al-Dawla recognized his younger brother Mu'ayyad because of his loyalty, and gave him the troops of Fakhr al-Dawla and helped him conquer Tabaristan and
Gorgan Gorgan (; ) is a city in the Central District (Gorgan County), Central District of Gorgan County, Golestan province, Golestan province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It lies approximately to the nor ...
from Qabus, who had betrayed Adud al-Dawla by giving refuge to Fakhr al-Dawla. Mu'ayyad al-Dawla shortly managed to conquer these two provinces.


Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines

Adud al-Dawla was now the senior ruler of the Buyid Empire, and several rulers such as the Hamdanids, Saffarids, Shahinids, Hasanwayhids and even other lesser rulers who controlled
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
, including its surrounding regions, acknowledged his authority. Other regions, such as
Makran Makran (), also mentioned in some sources as ''Mecran'' and ''Mokrān'', is the southern coastal region of Balochistan. It is a semi-desert coastal strip in the Balochistan province in Pakistan and in Iran, along the coast of the Gulf of Oman. I ...
, were also under Buyid control. Adud al-Dawla then returned to Baghdad, where he built and restored several buildings in the city. He also stopped the quarrel between the Daylamites and Turks of the Buyid army. In 980, the
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
rebel
Bardas Skleros Bardas Skleros (Greek: Βάρδας Σκληρός) or Sclerus was a Byzantine general who led a wide-scale Asian rebellion against Emperor Basil II during the years 976 to 979. Background Bardas' father Niketas Skleros belonged to the great f ...
fled to Mayyafariqin. When he arrived, he sent his brother to Baghdad to offer his allegiance to Adud al-Dawla and make an alliance against the Byzantines, which Adud al-Dawla accepted. A Byzantine envoy from
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
shortly arrived in Baghdad and tried to persuade Adud al-Dawla to hand over the rebel, but he refused, keeping the rebel and some of his family members in Baghdad for the rest of his reign, thus strengthening his diplomatic position with the Byzantines. In 981, Adud al-Dawla sent Abu Bakr Baqillani to Constantinople to negotiate peace. However, he was most likely sent to spy on the Byzantines and how their military functioned, since Adud al-Dawla was planning to invade Byzantine territory. In 982, Adud al-Dawla sent another envoy to Constantinople, this time, Abu Ishaq ibn Shahram, who, after spending three months in the city, concluded a 10-year peace treaty with them. One year later, a Byzantine envoy arrived back in Baghdad, but Adud al-Dawla was too ill to bring an end to the negotiations. In the end, the 10-year peace treaty was finally completed, and the Byzantines also agreed to mention Adud al-Dawla's name in the
Friday prayer Friday prayer, or congregational prayer (), is the meeting together of Muslims for communal prayer and service at midday every Friday. In Islam, the day itself is called ''Yawm al-Jum'ah'' (shortened to ''Jum'ah''), which translated from Arabic me ...
in Constantinople. Sahib ibn Abbad is known to have said the following about this event: "he dud al-Dawlahas done what no kings of the Arabs nor any Chosroes
ings ''Ings'' is an old word of Old English origin referring to water meadows and marshes. The term appears in place names in Yorkshire (such as Hall Ings, Bradford, Fairburn Ings RSPB reserve, Clifton Ings in York, Derwent Ings, Sutton Ings, Acast ...
of the Persians could – he has Syria and the two Iraqs, and he is close to the Despot of Byzantium and the Maghribi by his continuous correspondence."


Administration and contributions

Adud al-Dawla kept his court in Shiraz. He visited Baghdad frequently and kept some of his ''viziers'' there, one of them being a
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
named Nasir ibn Harun. Furthermore, he had several
Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, Zoroaster ( ). Among the wo ...
statesmen who served him, such as Abu Sahl Sa'id ibn Fadl al-Majusi, who served as his representative in Baghdad before his conquest of Iraq; Abu'l-Faraj Mansur ibn Sahl al-Majusi, who served as his financial minister; and Bahram ibn Ardashir al-Majusi. Adud al-Dawla seems to have greatly respected their religion. Under him the Buyid kingdom flourished. His policies were liberal so there were no riots during his reign. He embellished Baghdad with numerous public buildings, including the famous
al-'Adudi Hospital The Al-'Adudi Hospital was established during the era of organized hospitals developed in medieval Islamic culture. Some of these early hospitals were located in Baghdad and among those was the bimaristan Al-'Adudi. The hospital came to be when Ki ...
. It was the largest hospital of that time, and was destroyed during the
Mongol conquests The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...
. Many prominent figures worked at the hospital, such as
'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi (; died between 982 and 994), also known as Masoudi, or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian physician and psychologist from the Islamic Golden Age, most famous for the '' Kitab al-Maliki'' or '' Complete Book of ...
and Ibn Marzuban. Adud al-Dawla also built
caravanserai A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was an inn that provided lodging for travelers, merchants, and Caravan (travellers), caravans. They were present throughout much of the Islamic world. Depending on the region and period, they were called by a ...
s and dams. Shiraz particularly benefited from this work: there, he built a palace with three hundred and sixty rooms with advanced wind towers for air conditioning. The population of Shiraz had increased so much during his reign that he built a satellite city nearby for his army, named ''Kard-i Fannā Khusraw'' ("made by Fanna Khusraw")--a clear reference to the names that the
Sasanians The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
gave their foundations. There were two annual festivals in the city: the first commemorated the day when water pipes reached the city; the second, the anniversary of the city's foundation. Both celebrations were instituted by Adud al-Dawla on the model of the holiday of
Nowruz Nowruz (, , () , () , () , () , Kurdish language, Kurdish: () , () , () , () , , , , () , , ) is the Iranian or Persian New Year. Historically, it has been observed by Iranian peoples, but is now celebrated by many ...
, the Iranian New Year. All these activities greatly expanded the economy of Fars so that the tax income was tripled in the 10th century. His contributions to the enrichment of Fars made it a region of relative stability and prosperity for the
culture of Iran The culture of Iran () or culture of PersiaYarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) is one of the oldest and among the most influential in the world. Iran (Persia) is widely regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.
during the
Seljuq Seljuk (, ''Selcuk'') or Saljuq (, ''Saljūq'') may refer to: * Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia * Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities * S ...
and Mongol invasions.


Family

Adud al-Dawla, in order to maintain peace, established marriage ties with several rulers: his daughter was married to the Abbasid caliph
at-Ta'i Abu Bakr ʿAbd al-Karīm ibn al-Faḍl (; 932 – 3 August 1003), better known by his regnal name al-Ṭāʾiʿ liʾllāh/biʾllāh (), was the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad from 974 to his deposition in 991. He was in office during the domination of ...
, while another was married to the
Samanids People Samanid Samanid Samanid The Samanid Empire () was a Persianate society, Persianate Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslim empire, ruled by a dynasty of Iranian peoples, Iranian ''dehqan'' origin. The empire was centred in Greater Khorasan, Khorasan an ...
and the Ziyarid ruler Bisutun. Adud al-Dawla himself had several wives, which included the daughter of Bisutun; the daughter of Manadhar, a
Justanid The Justanids or Jostanids () were an Iranian Zaydi Shia dynasty that ruled a part of Daylam (the mountainous district of Gilan) from 791 to the late 11th century. History The Justanids appear as kings of Daylam at the end of the 8th century. ...
king; and the daughter of Siyahgil, a Giilite king. From these wives, Adud al-Dawla had several sons: Abu'l-Husain Ahmad and Abu Tahir Firuzshah, from the daughter of Manadhar; Abu Kalijar Marzuban, from the daughter of Siyahgil; and
Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris () (c. 960-September 7, 988 or September 6, 989) was the Buyid amir of Kerman and Fars (983-988/9), as well as Iraq (987-988/9). He was the eldest son of 'Adud al-Dawla. Early life When Kerman was conquered by his father ...
, from a Turkic concubine. Adud al-Dawla also had a younger son named
Baha' al-Dawla Abu Nasr Firuz Kharshadh (; died December 22, 1012), better known by his ''laqab'' of Baha al-Dawla () was the Buyid amir of Iraq (988–1012), along with Fars and Kerman (998–1012). His early reign was dominated by struggles with his rival rel ...
. Abu'l-Husain Ahmad was supported by his mother and his uncle,
Fuladh ibn Manadhar Fuladh ibn Manadhar (), was a Justanid prince, who served as a high-ranking military officer of the Buyid dynasty. Biography Fuladh was the son of Manadhar, a Justanid king. Fuladh had a brother named Khusrau Shah, who ruled Rudbar after M ...
, as the heir to the Buyid Empire. However, Abu Kalijar Marzuban, because of his more prominent descent, was appointed as heir to the Buyid Empire by Adud al-Dawla.


Ancestry


Death and succession

Adud al-Dawla died at Baghdad on 26 March 983, and was buried in
Najaf Najaf is the capital city of the Najaf Governorate in central Iraq, about 160 km (99 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2024 is about 1.41 million people. It is widely considered amongst the holiest cities of Shia Islam an ...
. His son Abu Kalijar Marzuban, who was in Baghdad at the time of his death, first kept his death secret in order to ensure his succession and avoid civil war. When he made the death of his father public, he was given the title of "Samsam al-Dawla". However, Adud al-Dawla's other son, Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris, challenged the authority of Samsam al-Dawla, resulting in a civil war.


Legacy

Adud al-Dawla, like previous Buyid rulers, maintained the
Abbasids The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes i ...
in Baghdad, which gave legitimacy to his dynasty in the eyes of some Sunni Muslims. However, he showed more interest than his predecessors to the pre-Islamic culture of Iran, and was proud of his Iranian origin. He visited
Persepolis Persepolis (; ; ) was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (). It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht, encircled by the southern Zagros mountains, Fars province of Iran. It is one of the key Iranian cultural heritage sites and ...
alongside Marasfand, the Zoroastrian chief priest (''
mobad A mobed, mowbed, or mobad (Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭢𐭥𐭯𐭲) is a Zoroastrian cleric of a particular rank. Unlike a '' herbad'' (''ervad''), a ''mobed'' is qualified to serve as celebrant priest at the Yasna ceremony and other higher liturgi ...
'') of
Kazerun Kazerun () is a city in the northwest of Fars Province in Iran and the center of Kazerun County. This city has an ancient history, numerous ancient and historical monuments, and numerous tourist attractions. Kazerun is the largest and most p ...
, who read the pre-Islamic inscriptions in the city for him. Adud al-Dawla later left an inscription in the city, which tells about his awareness of being heir of an ancient pre-Islamic civilization. Adud al-Dawla even claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V Gor, minted coins of him wearing a Sasanian type crown, which carried the traditional Sasanian inscription, ''
Shah Shāh (; ) is a royal title meaning "king" in the Persian language.Yarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII, no. 1 (1989) Though chiefly associated with the monarchs of Iran, it was also used to refer to the leaders of numerous Per ...
anshah, may his glory increase.'' The reverse side of the coin said: ''May Shah Fanna Khusraw live long.'' However, he still preferred Arabic authors to Persian ones. There is very little evidence of his interest in Persian poetry. He studied Arabic, wrote Arabic verse and was proud to be a student of a famous Arab grammarian. He studied science in Arabic, including astronomy and mathematics. Many books written in Arabic were dedicated to him whether religious or secular. Apparently showing interest in
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
rather than
Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
, Adud al-Dawla followed the mainstream of intellectual life in a provincial town where culture was dominated by Arabic and Persian. Like many of his contemporaries, he does not seem to have felt that his admiration for the pre-Islamic Iranian civilization conflicted with his Muslim Shiite faith. According to some accounts, he repaired the Imam Husayn Shrine in
Karbala Karbala is a major city in central Iraq. It is the capital of Karbala Governorate. With an estimated population of 691,100 people in 2024, Karbala is the second largest city in central Iraq, after Baghdad. The city is located about southwest ...
, and built a mausoleum of
Ali Ali ibn Abi Talib (; ) was the fourth Rashidun caliph who ruled from until his assassination in 661, as well as the first Shia Imam. He was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib an ...
in Najaf, which is today known as the Imam Ali Mosque. He is said to have been generous to a prominent Shiite theologian, but did not follow a uniformly Shiite religious policy and was tolerant to the
Sunnis Sunni Islam is the largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any Succession to Muhammad, successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr ...
. He even tried to give his daughter in marriage to the caliph, supposedly hoping to strengthen the claim of his dynasty to power by uniting it with the Abbasid one, but this was a failure because the caliph refused to consummate the marriage. Adud al-Dawla is credited with patronizing many scientific projects during his rule. An observatory was built by his orders in
Isfahan Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...
where Azophi worked.
Al-Muqaddasi Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr, commonly known by the '' nisba'' al-Maqdisi or al-Muqaddasī, was a medieval Arab geographer, author of ''The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Regions'' and ''Description of Syri ...
also reports that he ordered the construction of a great
dam A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aqua ...
between
Shiraz Shiraz (; ) is the List of largest cities of Iran, fifth-most-populous city of Iran and the capital of Fars province, which has been historically known as Pars (Sasanian province), Pars () and Persis. As of the 2016 national census, the popu ...
and
Istakhr Istakhr (Middle Persian romanized: ''Stakhr'', ) was an ancient city in Fars province, north of Persepolis in southwestern Iran. It flourished as the capital of the Persian '' Frataraka'' governors and Kings of Persis from the third century BC t ...
in 960. The dam irrigated some 300 villages in
Fars province Fars Province or Pars Province, also known as Persis or Farsistan (فارسستان), is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Its capital is the city of Shiraz. Pars province has an area of 122,400 km2 and is located in Iran's southwest, i ...
and became known as
Band-e Amir Band-e Amir National Park (; ) is located in the central Bamyan Province of Afghanistan. It was established on 22 May 2009 as Afghanistan's first national park to promote and protect the natural beauty of a series of intensely blue lakes create ...
(Dam of the Emir). Among his other major constructions was the digging of the
Haffar Haffar is a canal in Iran. During the early Islamic centuries, the Daylamite Buwayhid king, Panah Khusraw Adud ad-Dawlah, ordered the digging of a canal to join the Karun River, which at the time emptied independently into the Persian Gulf through ...
channel, that joined the
Karun The Karun (, ) is the Iranian river with the highest water flow, and the country's only navigable river. It is long. The Karun rises in the Zard Kuh mountains of the Bakhtiari district in the Zagros Range, receiving many tributaries, such as ...
river to the
Shatt al-Arab The Shatt al-Arab () is a river about in length that is formed at the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in the town of al-Qurnah in the Basra Governorate of southern Iraq. The southern end of the river constitutes the Iran– ...
river (the confluence of the
Tigris The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
and the
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
). The port of
Khorramshahr Khorramshahr (; ) is a city in the Central District of Khorramshahr County, Khuzestan province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district. It is also known in Arabic by the local ethnically Arab population as Al-Muhamma ...
was built on the Haffar, at its junction with the Shatt al-Arab.


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* * * * Hill, Donald Routledge, ''Islamic Science And Engineering'', Edinburgh University Press (1993), *
Edward Granville Browne Edward Granville Browne FBA (7 February 1862 – 5 January 1926) was a British Iranologist. He published numerous articles and books, mainly in the areas of history and literature. Life Browne was born in Stouts Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire, ...
, ''Islamic Medicine'', 2002, * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * *


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Adud al-Dawla 936 births 983 deaths Buyid emirs of Iraq Buyid emirs of Fars Buyid emirs of Kerman 10th-century monarchs in the Middle East 10th-century Iranian people People from Isfahan Burials at Imam Ali Mosque Shahanshahs