
The Falisci were an
Italic tribe who lived in what is now northern
Lazio
Lazio ( , ; ) or Latium ( , ; from Latium, the original Latin name, ) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy, administrative regions of Italy. Situated in the Central Italy, central peninsular section of the country, it has 5,714,882 inhabitants an ...
, on the Etruscan side of the
Tiber River.
They spoke an
Italic language,
Faliscan, closely related to
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
. Originally a sovereign state, politically and socially they supported the
Etruscans, joining the Etruscan League. This conviction and affiliation led to their ultimate near destruction and total subjugation by
Rome
Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
.
Only one instance of their own
endonym
An endonym (also known as autonym ) is a common, name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate them ...
has been found to date: an inscription from Falerii Novi from the late 2nd century AD refers to the ', "the Faliscans who are in
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
", where ' is the nominative plural case. An Etruscan inscription calls them the '. The Latin cannot be far different from the original name. The -sc- suffix is "distinctive of the Italic ethnonyms".
Geography
The Falisci resided in a region called by the Romans the ', "Faliscan Country", located on the right bank of the
Tiber River between and including Grotta Porciosa in the north and
Capena in the south. The 1st-century Roman writer
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...
and the 1st-century BCE Latin poet
Horace
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), Suetonius, Life of Horace commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). Th ...
both state that the
Monte Soratte was within Faliscan territory; it likely functioned as the border between Faliscan country and
Capenate territory. The land between Monte Soratte and the Tiber is of unclear ownership; although nearly all the 4th-3rd century BCE inscriptions from the area east of Monte Soratte are Faliscan, most scholars consider the land to have been part of the ''ager Capenas''. To the west, the corners of the roughly square area were on the slopes of the
Monti Sabatini in the south and the
Monti Cimini in the north. Pollen samples from
Lake Bracciano, Lake Monterosi and
Lake Vico reveal that the montane forests, formed by oaks, were very dense until the 2nd century BC. According to the 1st-century BCE Roman historian
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
, the forest by Monti Cimini was dangerous for foreigners as of the 4th-century BCE; he claims that "not a single trader had, up to that time, ventured through it."
The arable land was contained within an enclosure of volcanic highlands and the
Tiber River. The northern border of the enclosure went along the ridge of the
Monti Cimini, the southern along the ridge connecting the
Monti Sabatini and
Monte Soratte, the western along the highlands connecting the two large volcanic lakes. The inner slopes are drained by streams pointing at the Tiber, which collect into converging canyons and finally into the canyon of the Treja river, which empties into the Tiber. These streams required an extensive network of bridges.
Most of the through traffic went along the
Via Tiburtina on the west bank of the river, which could only be crossed south of Capena or at Grotta Porciosa in the north. There the
Via Flaminia
The Via Flaminia () was an ancient Roman roads, Roman road leading from Rome over the Apennine Mountains to ''Ariminum'' (Rimini) on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, and due to the ruggedness of the mountains was the major option the Romans had f ...
, earlier the
Via Amerina, led inland into the country of the
Sabines via the valley of the Nar River. On the western side, the
Via Cassia
The Via Cassia () was an important Roman road striking out of the Via Flaminia near the Milvian Bridge in the immediate vicinity of Rome and, passing not far from Veii, traversed Etruria. The ''Via Cassia'' passed through Baccanae, Sutrium ...
or its predecessor led to the coast over
Sutri gap. The Falisci therefore prospered by being on a protected crossroad.
The primary urban center in Faliscan territory was the city of
Falerii, now the modern settlement of
Civita Castellana. Falerii was situated at the conjunction of several small rivers from
Monti Sabatini and the larger
Treia river. Following the Roman conquest of 241 BCE, the city of Falerii was destroyed and the inhabitants were moved to the less defensible position of
Falerii Novi. Another major city mentioned in ancient literature is
Fescennium, which is said by Festus to be the origin site of the
Roman wedding tradition known as the
Fescennine verses. Other Faliscan cities unmentioned by the ancient sources include
Corchiano,
Vignanello,
Gallese and Grotta Porciosa.
History
The Falisci, often allied with the Etruscans, resisted
Rome
Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
for a long time. They were allied with
Veii when it was defeated in 396 BC. In the aftermath, Falerii was occupied by the victorious Romans. When, in 358,
Tarquinia rebelled, the Falisci again took arms against Rome, but were again crushed c. 351 BC. This time an alliance was signed between the contenders, and a Roman garrison was settled in Falerii.
The Falisci took advantage of the
First Punic War
The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
to declare their independence, but their revolt ended in 241 BC with the death of 15,000 Falisci and the destruction of Falerii; the survivors were moved to a new city, ''
Falerii Novi''.
Culture
It is unclear precisely how the Faliscans saw themselves and what characteristics they believed separated them from neighboring cultures. The only instance of the Falisci referring to their own ethnicity comes from a 2nd-century Latin inscription from Falerii Novi describing Faliscans in
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
: "''falesce·quei·in·Sardinia·sunt''." Ancient Roman authors sometimes equate the Falisci and the
Etruscans; the 4th-century Latin writer
Servius the Grammarian calls the city of Falerii a Tuscan city and Livy calls the Falisci an Etruscan people. The 1st-century BCE historian
Dionysus of Halicarnassus claimed that Faliscan culture developed from earlier, supposedly
Pelasgian, inhabitants of the region.
[ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. '' Roman antiquities''. 1.21.1-2.] However, the 1st-century BCE geographer
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...
notes that the Falisci differed from the Etruscans in numerous ways: "Some say that the inhabitants of Falerii are not Etruscans, but Faliscans, a distinct people; and some, too, that the Faliscans are a ''
polis
Polis (: poleis) means 'city' in Ancient Greek. The ancient word ''polis'' had socio-political connotations not possessed by modern usage. For example, Modern Greek πόλη (polē) is located within a (''khôra''), "country", which is a πατ ...
'' with a distinct tongue."
Dionysius describes Faliscan weaponry in his works, stating that their
spears and
bucklers resembled
Greek equipment used in
Argos. Dionysius likely intended this description to further support his proposed connection between Argos and the Falisci. He further claims that whenever the Faliscan army left their borders, they sent unarmed holy men ahead of the rest of the army carrying the terms of peace.
[ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. '' Roman antiquities''. 1.21.1.] Cato the Elder, a 3rd-century BCE Roman politician, mentions a type of
cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are calle ...
-stall called the ''praesepe Faliscum'', although such a device was possibly not exclusive to the ''ager Faliscus''.
Pottery
The Faliscans earned large quantities of
black
Black is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without chroma, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness.Eva Heller, ''P ...
and
red-figure pottery from trade with the
Attic
An attic (sometimes referred to as a '' loft'') is a space found directly below the pitched roof of a house or other building. It is also known as a ''sky parlor'' or a garret. Because they fill the space between the ceiling of a building's t ...
parts of Greece and immigration of Attic artisans. By the 4th-century BCE, the red-figure style became the predominant type of pottery in the ''ager Faliscus''. During this same century, the city of Falerii experienced significant artistic development; 4th-century BCE pottery from Falerii demonstrates standardized design and highly technical craftsmanship.
Vincent Jolviet studied Faliscan tombs and divided Faliscan red-figure pottery into two categories: the "Style ancien," which comprises pottery produced around 380 BCE, and the "Style récent," consisting of pottery made from 340-280 BCE. The ancient Faliscan style contained distinctly Faliscan characteristics such as the decorations under the handles, although it remained strongly influenced by its Attic origins. In contrast, the recent style shows greater evidence of technical differences from Attic pottery: decorations in the recent style were painted without relief-lines, using thin, rushed, and watery paint lines instead. Late Faliscan pottery contained
volutes, tongue-decorations on the shoulders, and
palmettes beneath the handles. Dionysian imagery, such as depictions of
satyrs and
maenads
In Greek mythology, maenads (; ) were the female followers of Dionysus and the most significant members of his retinue, the ''thiasus''.
Their name, which comes from :wikt:μαίνομαι#Ancient Greek, μαίνομαι (''maínomai'', “to ...
alongside birds, also became staples of late Faliscan pottery. Winged figures were used to fill up blank spaces easily, expediting the production process.
Social structure
The exact political mechanisms underpinning Faliscan society remain unclear due to limited archaeological evidence. Middle Faliscan inscriptions mention the political position of ''efiles'', a term that may have emerged as a
calque
In linguistics, a calque () or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language ...
on the Latin word ''
aedilis.'' Late Faliscan inscriptions from Falerii Novi (dated to after the Roman conquest) mention a ''cuestod'' (
quaestor), a
censor, several ''duouiri'' (
Duumviri), and a ''pretod'' (
praetor
''Praetor'' ( , ), also ''pretor'', was the title granted by the government of ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected ''magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to disch ...
) that served a—possibly local—
senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
. The term ''rex'', meaning "king," appears on the ''
cursus honorum'' in a Middle Faliscan text. It is possible that this position performed religious duties, similar to the Roman ''
Rex sacrorum''. The title appears at the end of the ''cursus'', indicating that these magistrates may have served for a limited duration of time or served periodically. Another possible explanation for this placement is that the office was not a part of the traditional Roman ''cursus honorum''.
The usage of
patronymic
A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of one's father, grandfather (more specifically an avonymic), or an earlier male ancestor. It is the male equivalent of a matronymic.
Patronymics are used, b ...
instead of
matronymic filiations indicates that Faliscan society may have been somewhat
patriarchal. There are several examples of Faliscan praenomina which are seemingly unique to Faliscan culture or are rare outside of the ''ager Faliscus''; the names ''Iuna'' and ''Volta'' are included within this category, they are especially unique as they are masculine names with the ending -''a''. Other names such as ''Gaius'' and ''Gaia'' are much more common in Faliscan inscriptions than in other cultures. Instances of double
gentillicum are found in a Middle Faliscan inscription containing the name ''uel
· isni · olna'' and in a Middle or Late Faliscan text containing the name ''m · tito · tulio · uoltilio · hescuna.'' In Etruscan culture, this naming convention was used to mark an individual as a
freedman. One Middle Faliscan inscription from Falerii mentions a freedwoman named ''loụṛia'' who was inhumed in the same ''loculus'' as the freeborn ''fasies : c
iia''.
Literature
Faliscan impasto pottery from the 7th-century BCE sometimes bear the signatures of their creators, a mark that possibly signified that the works were commissioned by individuals of high social-standing. Inscriptions such as those found on pottery, alongside the numerous other examples of Faliscan writing, suggest that some segments of the population were
literate. Levels of literacy likely varied significantly between different social classes. The 1st-century BCE Roman historian
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
provides information on Faliscan schooling practices; he states that, like the Greeks, they placed several boys under the tutorship of one man who functioned as both the teacher and companion of the children. Livy recites a specific incidence of a well-educated schoolmaster who was entrusted with teaching the children of the local leaders. According to Livy, this man took his students outside the walls of the city of Falerii for play and exercise. During the war with the Romans, the teacher was said by Livy to have taken the students further and further from the walls each day, until he saw the opportunity to flee to the Roman camp with the children and surrendered them to the Roman general
Camillus. Livy states that Camillus refused to accept the hostages, instead declaring that Falerii shall be conquered through Roman bravery and strategy; Camillus is said to have given the children rods and instructed them to lead the schoolmaster back to the city whilst beating him. Livy concluded by stating that the local Faliscan magistrates were so impressed by this display of Roman virtue, that they voluntarily surrendered themselves believing that they would live better under the Romans than their own laws. There is some evidence of a distinctly Faliscan literature; the Fescennine verses are attributed to the Faliscans and the ''metrum Faliscum'' (Faliscan
meter
The metre (or meter in US spelling; symbol: m) is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). Since 2019, the metre has been defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of ...
) may also have been created by the Falisci, although the ''metrum Faliscum'' is attributed to an unknown author named Serenus by the 2nd-century
Latin grammarian Terentianus. Servius states that several laws in the
Twelve Tables derive from the Faliscans, although no original Faliscan laws have survived.
[ Maurus Servius Honoratus. ]
In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii
'
A.7.695.
/ref>
Funerary practices
Possibly the most uniquely Faliscan aspect of Faliscan material culture was their funerary rites. During the beginning of the 8th-century BCE, around the earliest periods of Faliscan history, they cremated their dead and stored the ashes in stone cists. By the last quarter of the 8th-century BCE, burial became more common for upper-class women while cremation remained common for upper-class men. Throughout the rest of the century, Faliscan burial practices evolved towards inhumation in trench or pit tombs and then the usage of sarcophagi. Sarcophagi were replaced with wooden caskets typically made from a hollowed tree trunk by the end of the century. Loculi—a specific type of burial niche—began to be incorporated into Faliscan funerary sites around this time, becoming grave sites themselves by the end of the century. Loculus tombs can be divided into two distinct categories depending upon the number of loculi: the Narce type, containing one loculus, and the Montarano type, containing two. Another loculus tomb discovered in the Celle necropolis uniquely does not contain two loculi placed on opposite walls, but instead on adjacent walls in an L-shaped formation. In the first quarter of the 7th-century BCE, the Faliscans began to use rock-cut chamber tombs. In the northern and southern regions of Faliscan territory, it is common for the chamber tombs to be carved around a pilaster
In architecture, a pilaster is both a load-bearing section of thickened wall or column integrated into a wall, and a purely decorative element in classical architecture which gives the appearance of a supporting column and articulates an ext ...
. Faliscan chamber tombs often contain multiple loculi closed with tiles, a layout unlike other contemporary cultures.
In Narce, a 2.8 by 1.55 meter
The metre (or meter in US spelling; symbol: m) is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). Since 2019, the metre has been defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of ...
Faliscan sarcophagus was uncovered buried within a 1.45-meter-deep hole in 2012. The sarcophagus was contained inside a recess at the bottom of a trench filled with sand
Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is usually defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural ...
. At the long ends of the sarcophagus, a layer of compacted tufa fragments held the coffin in place. It was enclosed with a layer of irregularly placed rocks, which are then placed beneath separate layers of coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other Chemical element, elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal i ...
mixed with clay
Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolinite, ). Most pure clay minerals are white or light-coloured, but natural clays show a variety of colours from impuriti ...
underneath a layer of sand and pozzolana
Pozzolana or pozzuolana ( , ), also known as pozzolanic ash (), is a natural siliceous or siliceous- aluminous material which reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water at room temperature (cf. pozzolanic reaction). In this reaction ...
. The final layer, covering all previous strata, consists of large tufa blocks mixed with clay. On the bottom of the sarcophagus, a drainage channel roughly shaped like the letter "Y" ending in a circular hole likely functioned to remove slurry and natural tissues liquified as part of the process of decomposition. This drainage system potentially motivated the unique sloped position of the sarcophagus; the placement on a slope allowed the fluids the flow out of the tomb. Collectively, these practices served to protect the tomb from damage and to preserve the body; in particular, the drainage of fluids helped to delay the rotting of the corpse and possibly to ritualistically purify the body. The grave goods were likely stolen prior to excavation, although remnants of a cup and a bronze fusiform pendant were uncovered.
Burial goods
Faliscan funerary goods varied depending upon the social status of the deceased; the graves of elites had more ostentatious collections of objects while the graves of lower-class persons stored few offerings. One of the most common burial items in Faliscan society was a type of Etruscan vase called a '' holmos''; the number of ''holmoi'' in a grave is often equivalent to the number of burials. In many circumstances, the grave goods of Faliscan burials were heavily influenced by the material culture of nearby pre-Roman societies. For instance, a bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...
bowl with a cuneiform
Cuneiform is a Logogram, logo-Syllabary, syllabic writing system that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era. Cuneiform script ...
inscription was found in a grave in Falerii. Trade routes
A trade route is a Logistics, logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. The term can also be used to refer to trade over land or water. Allowing Good (economics and accounting ...
connecting various civilizations from across the Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
likely brought material goods from various distinct cultures to the ''ager Faliscus''. It is likely that these trade routes, in particular commercial routes with the Etruscans, are responsible for the numerous foreign objects found in Faliscan burials. During the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, the Faliscans traded with the Attic
An attic (sometimes referred to as a '' loft'') is a space found directly below the pitched roof of a house or other building. It is also known as a ''sky parlor'' or a garret. Because they fill the space between the ceiling of a building's t ...
parts of Greece, resulting in large quantities of black and red-figure pottery appearing in Faliscan sites.
Adult Faliscans were buried with grave goods reflecting their role within society; men were often buried with spears and swords on the left side of their corpse while women were often buried with tools for spinning or weaving
Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal ...
such as spindle whorls, wooden spindles, a weaving comb pendant, and distaffs. Bronze distaffs occupy the same position in the tombs of women as weaponry occupies in the graves of men. These distaffs were often ornately decorated with inlay
Inlay covers a range of techniques in sculpture and the decorative arts for inserting pieces of contrasting, often colored materials into depressions in a base object to form Ornament (art), ornament or pictures that normally are flush with the ...
of amber and gold
Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
. They likely did not serve a utilitarian function for spinning like regular distaffs; instead, they probably served a ceremonial purpose. Linen
Linen () is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant.
Linen is very strong and absorbent, and it dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. Lin ...
is mentioned as a characteristic feature of the Faliscan people by the 1st-century CE Roman writer Silius Italicus. Although weapons such as swords and spears are most often found in male graves, ritual axes have been uncovered in female graves. In one burial, a 30–40-year-old woman was buried with a miniature axe covering her forehead. This grave good likely reflected the significance of women or priestesses for religious sacrifice
Sacrifice is an act or offering made to a deity. A sacrifice can serve as propitiation, or a sacrifice can be an offering of praise and thanksgiving.
Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Gree ...
; it possibly reflects a more specific connection between women and the division of the meat of sacrificed animals.
The graves of female adolescents or children uniquely contain smaller, scaled down burial goods that lack any reference to work-related activities and are sometimes connected to childhood play; they also usually, although not always, lack any reference to the funerary symposium. It was common for the clothing of young girls to be covered in metal plates sometimes adorned with swastikas. Within a Faliscan tomb on the slopes of Monte Greco are the bodies of a mother and daughter, both buried in a trench tomb. Both women wore jewelry
Jewellery (or jewelry in American English) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment such as brooches, ring (jewellery), rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the ...
, although mother has larger amounts of jewelry and the highest-quality jewelry. The mother was buried with amber
Amber is fossilized tree resin. Examples of it have been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since the Neolithic times, and worked as a gemstone since antiquity."Amber" (2004). In Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen (eds.) ''Encyclopedia ...
pendants that possibly functioned to protect fertility
Fertility in colloquial terms refers the ability to have offspring. In demographic contexts, fertility refers to the actual production of offspring, rather than the physical capability to reproduce, which is termed fecundity. The fertility rate ...
, one of which depicts a woman with their bare hands grasping their belly and the other portrays a monkey. Another, likely fertility-related, pendant from a tomb in Pizzo Piede depicts a woman placing both her hands on her hips
In vertebrate anatomy, the hip, or coxaLatin ''coxa'' was used by Celsus in the sense "hip", but by Pliny the Elder in the sense "hip bone" (Diab, p 77) (: ''coxae'') in medical terminology, refers to either an anatomical region or a joint ...
, drawing attention to the pubis. This same tomb contains a two-wheeled chariot as a grave good, possibly symbolic of the wedding and funeral rituals as well as the journey into the afterlife
The afterlife or life after death is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's Stream of consciousness (psychology), stream of consciousness or Personal identity, identity continues to exist after the death of their ...
.
Archaeological analysis of a cremated Faliscan woman from Narce, who either had recently given birth or was in the late stages of pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestation, gestates inside a woman's uterus. A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Conception (biology), Conception usually occurs ...
, revealed that a necklace of glass paste and amber
Amber is fossilized tree resin. Examples of it have been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since the Neolithic times, and worked as a gemstone since antiquity."Amber" (2004). In Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen (eds.) ''Encyclopedia ...
beads was placed inside the '' olla'' following the cremation. Beads placed next to objects relating to the mother are similarly found in other structures identified as the graves of infants or female children. Amber is common throughout upper-class Faliscan graves in Narce, likely reflecting a high demand for exotic products. However, amber decorations and full-sized fibulae are primarily found in the graves of women over 30. The material was used to make complex necklaces, embellish tools or the parts of clothing, and—primarily in Narce—to make figurines. Amber figurines are almost exclusively found in female graves, although male graves sometimes contain several amber beads or some amber in fibulae.
Burial goods provide evidence for Faliscan fashion styles and cosmetics
Cosmetics are substances that are intended for application to the body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering appearance. They are mixtures of chemical compounds derived from either Natural product, natural source ...
. Some female—likely high-class—burials contain sculptures of women's heads, possibly wedding gifts, which depict Faliscan hairstyles; they suggest that Faliscan women may have used a snood to cover their hair. Further evidence for this piece of headgear derives from a mid-4th-century BCE tomb in Coste di Manone, occupied by a female skeleton with the remains of hair and fabric, possibly once a component of a snood embroidered with a purple or blue thread. Women are also found buried with cosmetic goods such as—from the 6th-century BCE onwards—bronze mirrors. One glazed black cup from the 3rd-century BCE, contains evidence of a red powder possibly used as lipstick
Lipstick is a cosmetics, cosmetic product used to apply coloration and texture to lips, often made of wax and oil. Different pigments are used to produce color, and minerals such as silica may be used to provide texture. The use of lipstick ...
or a rouge. Ancient Faliscan women may have used cylindrical cases to store cosmetic products. Evidence for this is found in a Faliscan krater made in the mid-4th-century BCE, although the usage of these objects for this purpose was likely not as common as in other regions such as Latium
Latium ( , ; ) is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire.
Definition
Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil (Old Latium) on whic ...
. The Faliscans had a tradition of decorating the cinerary urns of women with clothing and garments. Funerary ''ollae'' belonging to women from the Tufi necropolis were richly ornamented with clothing designs, one urn was wrapped in a belt that likely symbolically represented the body of the deceased. In Narce, the necks of cinerary urns were covered in fibulae and pendants.
Religion
Several Faliscan deities are attested in Faliscan writings. The " Ceres inscription," a Faliscan text dated to the 7th or 6th centuries BCE mentioning the name of the goddess Ceres, reads "''ceres ⁝ farme om ⁝ louf ui : ad''." The name "''ceres''" is closely connected to the word "''far''," meaning grain
A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached husk, hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and ...
; Ceres, an agricultural goddess, is closely connected to grain in Roman religion. It is also possible that the inscription mentions the name ''loụfir'', potentially referring to the god Liber—a Roman viticulture
Viticulture (, "vine-growing"), viniculture (, "wine-growing"), or winegrowing is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes. It is a branch of the science of horticulture. While the native territory of ''Vitis vinifera'', the common grape vine ...
deity—in connection to the Faliscan word ''uinom'', meaning wine. However, this interpretation of the text is rejected as "epigraphically impossible" by the Faliscan scholar Gabriël Bakkum.
According to the 1st-century BCE Roman writer Ovid
Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...
, Faliscan culture heavily emphasized the worship of the goddess Juno: Ovid refers to the Faliscans as "''Iunonicolae''" in his poem '' Fasti''. Ovid described a Faliscan temple of Juno he visited, stating that it resembled Hellenistic
In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...
structures and was located in a clearing, surrounded by dark woods and reached via a steep road. Another sanctuary at Falerii likely dedicated to Juno contains votive offerings such as axes, spear heads, and a bronze statuette depicting a warrior. Dionysius believed that the Faliscan civilization originated from Argos, citing the supposed similarities between the temple of Juno in Falerii and the temple of Hera
In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; ; in Ionic Greek, Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women, and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she is queen of the twelve Olympians and Mount Oly ...
at Argos. Dionysius and Ovid both state that the cult of Juno at Falerii continued into their lifetime. Archaeological evidence corroborates this narrative; ancient Roman inscriptions suggest that the cult of Juno Curritis was active during the reign of Emperor Trajan (). However, the religious practices of the cult under Roman occupation may not accurately reflect the traditional Faliscan practices.
Various Roman authors mention another popular Faliscan cult called the '' Hirpi Sorani'' who were said to have conducted ceremonies at Monte Sorratte. This ritual is entirely unmentioned in the epigraphical record, save for one inscription possibly containing the word ''sorex'' ("priest") that is potentially connected to this practice. Roman authors largely connect the ''Hirpi Sorani'' to the god Apollo
Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...
, an account that is supported by Faliscan inscriptions mentioning cult sites of Apollo. The Faliscans may have worshipped a deity unique to their culture called ''Titus Mercus'', a god possibly related to Oscan Mercus or the Roman Mercury (mythology), Mercury. Jupiter (god), Jupiter is possibly attested in a broken Middle Faliscan inscription reading "''[...]s pater''." The inscription can be restored as something resembling "dies pater," an archaic name for Jupiter. Further evidence for Jupiter worship in Faliscan culture comes a statue possibly depicting Jupiter found in a temple in Civita Castellana. Minerva is attested for in the same Middle Faliscan text, which contains the word "''menerua''." Ovid proposes that the goddess Minerva earned the epithet ''Capta'' due to an ''evocatio'' from the Faliscans. Italian archaeologist Mario Torelli argued that the Roman cult of Minerva Capta predated the conquest of the Faliscans and that the ''evocatio'' merely referred to the capture of the Faliscan statue of Minerva. Similarly, the Roman writers Macrobius and Servius both claim that the cult of Janus Quadrifrons, Janus Quadrifons was brought to Rome after the conquest of the ''ager Faliscus''.[Macrobius. ]
Saturnalia
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1.9.13
Faliscan legends and tales are almost exclusively attested on through artwork depicting mythological scenes, often events from Etruscan religion, Etruscan mythology. However, one Middle Faliscan inscription mentions the name ''canumede'', implying that the Faliscans shared the story of Ganymede (mythology), Ganymede with other cultures. Ganymede is possibly depicted in a headless statue of a naked young boy holding an ''oenochoe'' found in a Faliscan temple. If this statue does portray Ganymede, then it possibly indicates that the deity was involved in ceremonial Rite of passage, rites of passage for young men in the city. Few Faliscan religious positions are described in the sources; one inscription mentions a ''haruspex'', another mentions a ''rex'' possibly connected to the Rex sacrorum, and Servius claims the ''Fetial, fetiales'' priesthood originated from the Faliscans. Two Faliscan festivals, the ''Struppearia'' and ''decimatrus'' are described by the 2nd-century Roman grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus, Festus. According to Dionysius, holy women had an important religious function at the temple of Juno in Falerii; he writes that an unmarried girl, called the "''canephorus''" or the "basket-bearer," performed the initial sacrificial rites and that an Ensemble (musical theatre), ensemble of virgins sung songs in praise of the goddess.
Language
The Faliscan language, attested by the 7th century BC is an Indo-European language. Together with Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
, it forms the Latino-Faliscan languages group of the Italic languages. It seems probable that the language persisted, being gradually permeated with Latin, until at least 150 BC.
See also
* Etruria
Notes
References
Sources
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Further reading
* Carlucci, Claudia. ''Villa Giulia Museum: The Antiquities of the Faliscans''. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider, 1998.
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* Holland, Louise Adams. ''The Faliscans in Prehistoric Times''. Rome: American Academy in Rome, 1925.
* Potter, T. W. ''A Faliscan Town in South Etruria: Excavations at Narce 1966-71''. London: British School at Rome, 1976.
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{{Authority control
Falisci,
Italic peoples