The Livonian crusade consists of the various military
Christianisation campaigns in
medieval Livonia
Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for 'Land of Mary') was the formal name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia. It was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade, and its territories were composed of present-day Estonia and Latvia. It was estab ...
– modern
Latvia
Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
and
Estonia
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
– during the
Papal
The pope is the bishop of Rome and the visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the pope was the sovereign or head of sta ...
-sanctioned
Northern Crusades
The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were Christianization campaigns undertaken by Catholic Church, Catholic Christian Military order (society), military orders and kingdoms, primarily against the paganism, pagan Balts, Baltic, Baltic Finns, ...
in the 12th–13th century.
Overview
Historical sources
The main source of information on the Livonian crusade is the ''
Livonian Chronicle of Henry
The ''Livonian Chronicle of Henry'' () is a Latin narrative of events in Livonia (roughly corresponding to today's Estonia and Latvia) and surrounding areas from 1180 to 1227. It was written by a priest named Henry. Apart from some references ...
'', written in 1229 by
Henry of Latvia (''Henricus de Lettis''). In his chronicle, the author notes that he penned it down at the urging of his lords and companions, including his former teacher bishop
Albert of Riga
Albert of Riga or Albert of Livonia ( – 17 January 1229) was the third Catholic Bishop of Riga in Livonia. As the Bishop of Livonia, in 1201, he founded Riga, the modern capital city of Latvia, and the city was later made a bishopric. The bu ...
, who receives much praise throughout the text, that is internally divided according to the years of Albert's episcopate.
James A. Brundage (1972) posited that Albert commissioned Henry to write the ''Livonian Chronicle'' in the mid-1220s in order to glorify Albert's achievements, as well as to briefly summarise unresolved issues to the newly appointed
papal legate
300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the Pope's legate.
A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title '' legatus'') is a personal representative of the Pope to foreign nations, to some other part of the Catho ...
,
William of Modena
William of Modena ( – 31 March 1251), also known as ''William of Sabina'', ''Guglielmo de Chartreaux'', ''Guglielmo de Savoy'', ''Guillelmus'', was an Italian clergyman and papal diplomat. .
Henry wrote that the
papacy
The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
's use of the
crusade
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
as a foreign policy was extended to include military expeditions against the
Livonians
The Livonians, or Livs, are a Balto-Finnic people indigenous to the Livonian Coast, in northwestern Latvia. Livonians historically spoke Livonian language, Livonian, a Uralic language closely related to Estonian language, Estonian and Finnish lan ...
for the first time by papal proclamation in 1195, and then renewed in 1197 or 1198. There are no independent sources to confirm this; the earliest surviving papal letter on the Livonian crusade dates from 5 October 1199, issued by
Pope Innocent III
Pope Innocent III (; born Lotario dei Conti di Segni; 22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 until his death on 16 July 1216.
Pope Innocent was one of the most power ...
. Most surviving documents relating to William of Modena's mission as legate deal with problems caused by rivalries and internal tensions within the Catholic Church in Livonia and neighbouring areas. There are only scattered references to his interactions with converted populations in the Baltic, and no traces of William interacting with representatives of
Novgorod
Veliky Novgorod ( ; , ; ), also known simply as Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the V ...
,
Pskov
Pskov ( rus, Псков, a=Ru-Псков.oga, p=psˈkof; see also Names of Pskov in different languages, names in other languages) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city in northwestern Russia and the administrative center of Pskov O ...
,
Jersika
The Principality of Jersika (; ; ) was a medieval Latgalian principality in the east of modern-day Latvia, and one of the largest medieval states in Latvia before the Northern Crusades. The capital of Jersika was located on a hill fort southea ...
, or non-Christian powers in the region. When he returned to Rome in 1226, the
Apostolic Chancery
The Apostolic ChanceryCanon 260, ''Code of Canon Law'' of 1917, translated by Edward N. Peters, Ignatius Press, 2001. (; also known as the "Papal" or "Roman Chanc(ell)ery") was a dicastery of the Roman Curia at the service of the pope. The princ ...
in Rome issued a series of letters and decrees on affairs in Livonia, far more detailed than any previous papal communications on the Baltic, that were very vague and showed little interest in the region.
Participants
The 1199 letter of Innocent III provided that Christians who had vowed to go on
pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a travel, journey to a holy place, which can lead to a personal transformation, after which the pilgrim returns to their daily life. A pilgrim (from the Latin ''peregrinus'') is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) w ...
to the
Holy Land
The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
would receive an
indulgence
In the teaching of the Catholic Church, an indulgence (, from , 'permit') is "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for (forgiven) sins". The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' describes an indulgence as "a remission bef ...
(or
commutation
Commute, commutation or commutative may refer to:
* Commuting, the process of travelling between a place of residence and a place of work
Mathematics
* Commutative property, a property of a mathematical operation whose result is insensitive to th ...
) of
penance
Penance is any act or a set of actions done out of contrition for sins committed, as well as an alternative name for the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox sacrament of Reconciliation or Confession.
The word ''penance'' derive ...
for
sins
In religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law or a law of the deities. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considere ...
if they chose to participate in the Livonian crusade instead, and that they would receive the right to papal protection if they did. Participants would be wearing the
insignia
An insignia () is a sign or mark distinguishing a group, grade, rank, or function. It can be a symbol of personal power or that of an official group or governing body.
An insignia, which is typically made of metal or fabric, is a standalone sy ...
of the cross, which came with specific legal obligations; unlike crusaders in the Holy Land, it meant that the wearer had to serve in the papally proclaimed crusade in Livonia for at least one year.
Organisation
Unlike previous crusading enterprises that were usually started by the pope,
Albert of Buxhoeveden, bishop of Riga, appears to have been the primary initiator and recruiter for the Livonian crusade. Moreover, it was initially not accompanied by a
papal legate
300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the Pope's legate.
A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title '' legatus'') is a personal representative of the Pope to foreign nations, to some other part of the Catho ...
either until 1224, some three decades after the crusade's launch. In previous crusades, papal legates would always represent the pope, frequently preach to the crusaders, take part in military action, and serve a diplomatic role as the pope's spokesman on political and spiritual policies. When
William of Modena
William of Modena ( – 31 March 1251), also known as ''William of Sabina'', ''Guglielmo de Chartreaux'', ''Guglielmo de Savoy'', ''Guillelmus'', was an Italian clergyman and papal diplomat. was finally appointed legate in late 1224, it was at the request of Albert of Riga rather than by the pope's own initiative. Overseeing the crusading operation might not even have been a (great) part of William's mission, as it is not mentioned explicitly in his mandate. Brundage (1972) argued that from the mid-1220s, the papacy seemed to take a more active interest in the Livonian crusade, especially by combining the military objective of conquest with the religious objective of conversion of the subjected populations. In previous examples, such as the 1147
Wendish Crusade
The Wendish Crusade () was a military campaign in 1147, one of the Northern Crusades, led primarily by the Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire and directed against the Polabian Slavs (or "Wends"). The Wends were made up of the Slavic ...
, conquest and proselytisation were more or less separate activities, without close cooperation between crusaders and missionaries.
Geography
The Livonian crusade was conducted mostly by the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
and the
Kingdom of Denmark
The Danish Realm, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, or simply Denmark, is a sovereign state consisting of a collection of constituent territories united by the Constitution of Denmark, Constitutional Act, which applies to the entire territor ...
. It ended with the creation of
Terra Mariana
Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for 'Land of Mary (mother of Jesus), Mary') was the formal name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia. It was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade, and its territories were composed of present-day Estonia a ...
and the Danish
duchy of Estonia. The lands on the eastern shores of the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by the countries of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and the North European Plain, North and Central European Plain regions. It is the ...
were one of the last parts of
Europe
Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
to be
Christianised.
On 2 February 1207, in the territories conquered, an ecclesiastical state called ''Terra Mariana'' was established as a principality of the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
, and proclaimed by
Pope Innocent III
Pope Innocent III (; born Lotario dei Conti di Segni; 22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 until his death on 16 July 1216.
Pope Innocent was one of the most power ...
in 1215 as a subject of the
Holy See
The Holy See (, ; ), also called the See of Rome, the Petrine See or the Apostolic See, is the central governing body of the Catholic Church and Vatican City. It encompasses the office of the pope as the Bishops in the Catholic Church, bishop ...
. After the success of the crusade, the
Teutonic- and Danish-occupied territory was divided into six feudal principalities by
William of Modena
William of Modena ( – 31 March 1251), also known as ''William of Sabina'', ''Guglielmo de Chartreaux'', ''Guglielmo de Savoy'', ''Guillelmus'', was an Italian clergyman and papal diplomat. .
Wars against Livs and Latgalians (1198–1209)
By the time
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany, the country of the Germans and German things
**Germania (Roman era)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
traders began to arrive in the second half of the 12th century to trade along the ancient
trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks was a medieval trade route that connected Scandinavia, Kievan Rus' and the Eastern Roman Empire. The route allowed merchants along its length to establish a direct prosperous trade with the Empire ...
, some natives had already been baptized.
Saint
Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in
Ikšķile
Ikšķile (, ; , or ; ; ) is a town in Ogre Municipality, in the Vidzeme region of Latvia. It was the first capital of the Roman Catholic Bishopric of Livonia, known by the List of German exonyms for places in Latvia, German name of Uexküll, ...
in 1184 with the mission of converting the pagan
Livonians
The Livonians, or Livs, are a Balto-Finnic people indigenous to the Livonian Coast, in northwestern Latvia. Livonians historically spoke Livonian language, Livonian, a Uralic language closely related to Estonian language, Estonian and Finnish lan ...
, and was consecrated as
Bishop of Üxküll
The Archbishopric of Riga (, ) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
History
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia a ...
in 1186. In those days the riverside town was the center of the missionary activities in the Livonian area.
The indigenous
Livonians
The Livonians, or Livs, are a Balto-Finnic people indigenous to the Livonian Coast, in northwestern Latvia. Livonians historically spoke Livonian language, Livonian, a Uralic language closely related to Estonian language, Estonian and Finnish lan ...
(''Līvi''), who had been paying tribute to the
East Slavic Principality of Polotsk
The Principality of Polotsk (obsolete spelling: ''Polock''; ; ), also known as the Duchy of Polotsk or Polotskian Rus', was a medieval principality. The origin and date of the establishment of the state are uncertain. Chronicles of Kievan Rus' ...
, and were often under attack by their southern neighbours the
Semigallians
Semigallians (; ; also ''Zemgalians'', ''Semigalls'' or ''Semigalians'') were the Balts, Baltic tribe that lived in the south central part of contemporary Latvia and northern Lithuania. They are noted for their long resistance (1219–1290) agai ...
, at first considered the Low Germans (
Saxons
The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
) to be useful allies. The first prominent Livonian to be converted was their leader
Caupo of Turaida, who was baptized around 1189.
Pope Celestine III
Pope Celestine III (; c. 1105 – 8 January 1198), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 30 March or 10 April 1191 to his death in 1198. He had a tense relationship with several monarchs, including Emperor ...
had called for a crusade against
pagans in
Northern Europe
The northern region of Europe has several definitions. A restrictive definition may describe northern Europe as being roughly north of the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, which is about 54th parallel north, 54°N, or may be based on other ge ...
in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, the impatient Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians forcibly but was thwarted. He died in 1196, having failed in his mission. His appointed replacement, bishop
Berthold of Hanover
Berthold of Hanover (died 24 July 1198) was a German Cistercian and Bishop of Livonia, who met his death in a crusade against the pagan Livonians.
Life
He was abbot of the Cistercian Loccum Abbey in Hanover. At the death of Saint Meinhard, ...
, a
Cistercian
The Cistercians (), officially the Order of Cistercians (, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint Benedict, as well as the contri ...
abbot of Loccum arrived with a large contingent of crusaders in 1198. Shortly afterwards, while riding ahead of his troops in battle, Berthold was surrounded and killed, and his forces were defeated by Livonians.
To avenge Berthold's defeat,
Pope Innocent III
Pope Innocent III (; born Lotario dei Conti di Segni; 22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 until his death on 16 July 1216.
Pope Innocent was one of the most power ...
issued a bull declaring a crusade against the Livonians.
Albert von Buxthoeven, consecrated as a bishop in 1199,
arrived the following year with a large force, and established
Riga
Riga ( ) is the capital, Primate city, primate, and List of cities and towns in Latvia, largest city of Latvia. Home to 591,882 inhabitants (as of 2025), the city accounts for a third of Latvia's total population. The population of Riga Planni ...
as the seat of his
Bishopric of Riga
The Archbishopric of Riga (, ) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
History
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia ...
in 1201. In 1202, he formed the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (; ) was a Catholic Church, Catholic Military order (monastic society), military order established in 1202 during the Livonian Crusade by Albert of Riga, Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theode ...
to aid in the conversion of the pagans to Christianity and, more importantly, to protect German trade and secure German control over commerce.
As the German grip tightened, the Livonians and their christened chief rebelled against the crusaders. Caupo's forces were defeated at Turaida in 1206, and the Livonians were declared to be converted. Caupo subsequently remained an ally of the crusaders until his death in the
Battle of St. Matthew's Day
The Battle of Matthew's Day () was fought near Viljandi (probably in Vanamõisa, Viljandi County, Vanamõisa) on 21 September 1217 during the Livonian Crusade. The adversaries were the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, Sword Brethren (a German Cr ...
in 1217.
By 1208 the important Daugava trading posts of
Salaspils
Salaspils (; ; ) (literally: "island castle") is a town in the Vidzeme region of Latvia. It is the administrative centre of Salaspils Municipality. The town is situated on the northern bank of the Daugava river, 18 kilometers to the south-east ...
(Holme),
Koknese
Koknese () is a town in Aizkraukle Municipality in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, on the right bank of the Daugava River. It has a population of nearly 3,000.
According to the provisions of the 2021 Latvian administrative reform, Koknese gained ...
(Kokenhusen) and
Sēlpils Castle
Sēlpils Castle (; ) is an ancient castle in Sēlpils Parish, Jēkabpils Municipality in the Selonia region of Latvia.
History
It was built in place of the ancient Sēlpils hillfort (), a military and political center of ancient Selonia, ...
(Selburg) had been taken over as a result of Albert's energetic campaigning. In the same year, the rulers of the
Latgalian counties
Tālava
Tālava (; ) was a Latgalian country in the northern Vidzeme and northern Latgale region of modern-day Latvia. It was bordered by the Latgalian Principality of Jersika to the south, the Livonian counties of Metsepole and Idumeja to the west, th ...
,
Satekle, and
Autine established military alliances with the Order, and construction began on both
Cēsis Castle and a stone
Koknese Castle, where the
Daugava
The Daugava ( ), also known as the Western Dvina or the Väina River, is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea. The Daugava rises close to the source of ...
and
Pērse
The Pērse is a right tributary to the river Daugava in Latvia, flowing through Ērgļi Municipality, Ērgļi, Pļaviņas Municipality, Pļaviņas and Koknese Municipality, Koknese municipalities. The river crosses roads A6 road (Latvia), A6, P79 ...
rivers meet, replacing the wooden castle of Latgalians.
In 1209 Albert, leading the forces of the Order, captured the capital of the Latgalian
Principality of Jersika
The Principality of Jersika (; ; ) was a medieval Latgalians, Latgalian principality in the east of modern-day Latvia, and one of the largest medieval states in Latvia before the Northern Crusades. The capital of Jersika was located on a hill fo ...
, and took the wife of the ruler
Visvaldis
Visvaldis was a Latgalian nobleman and the prince of Jersika in the 13th century.
In the '' Livonian Chronicle of Henry '', he is called king (''rex'').
Biography
Visvaldis's date of birth is unknown. His origins, too, are unclear: some sch ...
captive. Visvaldis was forced to submit his kingdom to Albert as a grant to the
Archbishopric of Riga
The Archbishopric of Riga (, ) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
History
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia a ...
, and received back a portion of it as a fief. Tālava, weakened in wars with Estonians and Russians, became a
vassal state
A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to ...
of the Archbishopric of Riga in 1214, and in 1224 was finally divided between the Archbishopric and the Order.
File:Baltic Tribes c 1200.svg, Baltic tribes, c. 1200.
File:Talava.tif, Lands of Tālava
File:Lotigola.jpg, Lands of Lotigola
Wars against Estonians (1208–27)
Conquest of the Estonian hinterland
By 1208 the Crusaders were strong enough to begin operations against the
Estonians
Estonians or Estonian people () are a Finnic ethnic group native to the Baltic Sea region in Northern Europe, primarily their nation state of Estonia.
Estonians primarily speak the Estonian language, a language closely related to other Finni ...
, who were at that time divided into eight major and seven smaller
Counties
A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...
, led by elders, with limited co-operation between them. With the help of the newly converted local tribes of Livs and
Latgalians
Latgalians (, , modern ; variant translations also include Latgallians, Lettigalls or Lettigallians) were an ancient Baltic tribe.
They likely spoke a variant of Latvian language, which probably became the ''lingua franca'' in present-day Latvia ...
, the crusaders initiated raids into
Sakala and
Ugaunia
Ugandi (Latin: ''Ungannia'' or ''Ugaunia''; ; Low German: ''Uggn'') was an independent county between the east coast of Lake Võrtsjärv and west coast of Lake Pskov, bordered by Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Sakala, Tālava, and The Princi ...
in Southern Estonia. The Estonian tribes fiercely resisted the attacks from Riga and occasionally sacked territories controlled by the crusaders.
In 1208–27, war parties of the different sides rampaged through
Livonia
Livonia, known in earlier records as Livland, is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It is named after the Livonians, who lived on the shores of present-day Latvia.
By the end of the 13th century, the name was extende ...
, Latgalia, and other Estonian counties, with the Livs, Latgalians and
Russians
Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
of the
Republic of Novgorod
The Novgorod Republic () was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in Russian North, northern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of ...
serving variously as allies of both crusaders and Estonians.
Hill fort
A hillfort is a type of fortification, fortified refuge or defended settlement located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typical of the late Bronze Age Europe, European Bronze Age and Iron Age Europe, Iron Age. So ...
s, which were the key centers of Estonian counties, were besieged, captured, and re-captured a number of times. A truce between the war-weary sides was established for three years (1213–1215). It proved generally more favourable to the Germans, who consolidated their political position, while the Estonians were unable to develop their system of loose alliances into a centralised state. They were led by
Lembitu of Lehola, the elder of
Sackalia
Sakala County (Estonian: ''Sakala'', Latin: ''Saccalia'') was an ancient Estonian county that was first mentioned in print by Henry of Latvia in the early 13th century.
Geography
Sakala County is in northwestern Livonia, covering approximately ...
, who by 1211 had come to the attention of German chroniclers as the central figure of the Estonian resistance. The Livonian leader Caupo was killed in the
Battle of St. Matthew's Day
The Battle of Matthew's Day () was fought near Viljandi (probably in Vanamõisa, Viljandi County, Vanamõisa) on 21 September 1217 during the Livonian Crusade. The adversaries were the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, Sword Brethren (a German Cr ...
near
Viljandi (Fellin) on 21 September 1217, but Lembitu was also killed, and the battle was a crushing defeat for the Estonians.
The Christian kingdoms of
Denmark
Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...
and
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
were also eager for expansion on the eastern shores of the Baltic. In 1218 Albert asked King
Valdemar II of Denmark
Valdemar II Valdemarsen (28 June 1170 – 28 March 1241), later remembered as Valdemar the Victorious () and Valdemar the Conqueror, was King of Denmark from 1202 until his death in 1241.
In 1207, Valdemar invaded and conquered Bishopric of L� ...
for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Order. The king was victorious in the
Battle of Lindanise in
Revelia in 1219, to which the origin of the
Flag of Denmark
The flag of Denmark (, ) is red with a white Nordic cross, which means that the cross extends to the edges of the flag and that the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side.
A banner with a white-on-red cross is attested as havin ...
is attributed. He subsequently founded the fortress
Castrum Danorum
Toompea castle () is a medieval castle on Toompea hill in the central part of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. In modern times, it houses the Parliament of Estonia (''Riigikogu'').
History
The Toompea castle's predecessor, an ancient Estoni ...
, which was unsuccessfully besieged by the Estonians in 1220 and 1223. King
John I of Sweden
Johan Sverkersson ( – 10 March 1222), also known as John I, was King of Sweden from 1216 until his death in 1222. He was the last king from the House of Sverker, leaving no heirs. During his reign, an expedition was launched from Sweden against ...
tried to establish a Swedish presence in the province of
Wiek, but his troops were defeated by the
Oeselians
Oeselians or Osilians is a historical name for the people who prior to the Northern Crusades in the 13th century lived in the Estonian island of Saaremaa ( Ösel) – the Baltic Sea island was also referred as ''Oeselia'' or ''Osilia'' in writ ...
in the
Battle of Lihula
The Battle of Lihula or Battle of Leal was fought between invading Sweden, Swedes and Estonians for the control of a castle in Lihula, Estonia in 1220. The exact date remains uncertain, though some historians suggest that the battle took place ...
in 1220. Revelia,
Harrien, and
Vironia
Virumaa (; Low German: ''Wierland''; Old Norse language, Old Norse: ''Virland'') is a former independent (nation), independent county in Ancient Estonia. Now it is divided into Ida-Viru County or Eastern Vironia and Lääne-Viru County or Weste ...
, the whole of northern Estonia, fell to Danish control.
During the uprising of 1223, all Christian strongholds in Estonia save
Tallinn
Tallinn is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Estonia, most populous city of Estonia. Situated on a Tallinn Bay, bay in north Estonia, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, it has a population of (as of 2025) and ...
fell into Estonian hands, with their defenders killed. By 1224 all of the larger fortresses were reconquered by the crusaders, except for
Tharbata, which was defended by a determined Estonian garrison and 200 Russian mercenaries. The leader of the Russian troops was
Vyachko, to whom the
Novgorod Republic
The Novgorod Republic () was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in northern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of Novgorod. The ...
had promised the fortress and its surrounding lands "if he could conquer them for himself". Tharbata was finally captured by the crusaders in August 1224 and all its defenders were killed.
Early in 1224 Emperor
Frederick II had announced at
Catania
Catania (, , , Sicilian and ) is the second-largest municipality on Sicily, after Palermo, both by area and by population. Despite being the second city of the island, Catania is the center of the most densely populated Sicilian conurbation, wh ...
that Livonia,
Prussia
Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
,
Sambia
Sambia () or Samland () or Kaliningrad Peninsula (official name, , ''Kaliningradsky poluostrov'') is a peninsula in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, on the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea. The peninsula is bounded by the Curonian Lagoon t ...
and a number of neighboring provinces would henceforth be considered ''
reichsfrei
In the Holy Roman Empire, imperial immediacy ( or ) was the status of an individual or a territory which was defined as 'immediate' () to Emperor and Empire () and not to any other intermediate authorities, while one that did not possess that stat ...
'', that is, subordinate directly to the
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
and the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
only, as opposed to being under the jurisdiction of local rulers. At the end of the year
Pope Honorius III
Pope Honorius III (c. 1150 – 18 March 1227), born Cencio Savelli, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 18 July 1216 to his death. A canon at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, he came to hold a number of importa ...
announced the appointment of Bishop
William of Modena
William of Modena ( – 31 March 1251), also known as ''William of Sabina'', ''Guglielmo de Chartreaux'', ''Guglielmo de Savoy'', ''Guillelmus'', was an Italian clergyman and papal diplomat. as
papal legate
300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the Pope's legate.
A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title '' legatus'') is a personal representative of the Pope to foreign nations, to some other part of the Catho ...
for Livonia, Prussia, and other countries.
In 1224 the Livonian Brothers of the Sword established their headquarters at
Fellin (Viljandi) in Sackalia, where the walls of the Master's castle are still standing. Other strongholds included
Wenden (Cēsis),
Segewold (Sigulda), and
Ascheraden (Aizkraukle).
The
Chronicle of Henry of Livonia
The ''Livonian Chronicle of Henry'' () is a Latin narrative of events in Livonia (roughly corresponding to today's Estonia and Latvia) and surrounding areas from 1180 to 1227. It was written by a priest named Henry. Apart from some references ...
, one of the greatest medieval narratives, was written probably as a report for William of Modena, giving him the history of the Church in Livonia up to his time. It relates how in 1226, in the stronghold
Tarwanpe, William of Modena successfully mediated a peace between the Germans, the Danes and the
Vironians.
File:Ancient Estonian counties.png, Counties of Ancient Estonia
Ancient Estonia refers to a period covering History of Estonia from the middle of the 8th millennium BC until the conquest and subjugation of the local Finnic tribes in the first quarter of the 13th century during the Teutonic and Danish Nort ...
File:Danmarks flag 1219 Lorentzen.jpg, Dannebrog
Dannebrog (until the mid-20th century often spelled Danebrog) may refer to:
Flags and orders
* The flag of Denmark
* Order of the Dannebrog (), a Royal Danish decoration
Places
* Dannebrog Island, an island in Greenland
* Dannebrog Islands, ...
falling from the sky during the Battle of Lindanise, 1219.
War against Saaremaa (1206–61)

The last Estonian county to hold out against the invaders was the island country of
Saaremaa (Ösel), whose war fleets had continued to raid Denmark and Sweden during the years of fighting against the German crusaders.
In 1206, a Danish army led by the king
Valdemar II
Valdemar II Valdemarsen (28 June 1170 – 28 March 1241), later remembered as Valdemar the Victorious () and Valdemar the Conqueror, was King of Denmark from 1202 until his death in 1241.
In 1207, Valdemar invaded and conquered Lybeck and Hol ...
and
Andreas, the Bishop of Lund, landed on Saaremaa and attempted to establish a stronghold, without success. In 1216, the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (; ) was a Catholic Church, Catholic Military order (monastic society), military order established in 1202 during the Livonian Crusade by Albert of Riga, Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theode ...
and the bishop Theodorich joined forces and invaded Saaremaa over the frozen sea. The Oeselians retaliated by raiding German-held territories in Latvia the following spring. In 1220, a Swedish army led by the king
John I of Sweden
Johan Sverkersson ( – 10 March 1222), also known as John I, was King of Sweden from 1216 until his death in 1222. He was the last king from the House of Sverker, leaving no heirs. During his reign, an expedition was launched from Sweden against ...
and the bishop
Karl of Linköping captured
Lihula
Lihula is a town in Lääneranna Parish, Pärnu County, Estonia.
Lihula Castle
Lihula Castle () was first mentioned in 1211, but it appears the site was used as a fortress since the Iron Age. In 1220, a Swedish army started constructing a ca ...
in
Rotalia in Western Estonia. The Oeselians attacked the Swedish stronghold later the same year and killed the entire garrison, including the Bishop of Linköping.
In 1222, the Danish king
Valdemar II
Valdemar II Valdemarsen (28 June 1170 – 28 March 1241), later remembered as Valdemar the Victorious () and Valdemar the Conqueror, was King of Denmark from 1202 until his death in 1241.
In 1207, Valdemar invaded and conquered Lybeck and Hol ...
attempted the second conquest of Saaremaa, this time establishing a stone fortress housing a strong garrison. The stronghold was besieged and surrendered within five days, the Danish garrison returning to
Revel while leaving Bishop
Albert of Riga
Albert of Riga or Albert of Livonia ( – 17 January 1229) was the third Catholic Bishop of Riga in Livonia. As the Bishop of Livonia, in 1201, he founded Riga, the modern capital city of Latvia, and the city was later made a bishopric. The bu ...
's brother Theodoric and others behind as hostages for peace. The castle was leveled by the Oeselians.
In 1227, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, the town of Riga, and the
Bishop of Riga
The Archbishopric of Riga (, ) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
History
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia ...
organized a combined attack against Saaremaa. After the destruction of
Muhu Stronghold and the surrender of
Valjala Stronghold, the Oeselians formally accepted Christianity.
After the defeat of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the
Battle of Saule
The Battle of Saule (; ; ) was fought on 22 September 1236, between the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and pagan troops of Samogitians and Semigallians. Between 48 and 60 knights were killed, including the Livonian Master, Volkwin. It was the ea ...
in 1236 fighting again broke out on Saaremaa. In 1241 the Oeselians once again accepted
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
by signing treaties with the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
's Master Andreas de Velven and the
Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated ...
. This was followed by a treaty signed in 1255 by the Master of the Order, Anno Sangerhausenn, and, on behalf of the Oeselians, elders whose names were phonetically transcribed by Latin scribes as Ylle, Culle, Enu, Muntelene, Tappete, Yalde, Melete, and Cake. The treaty granted the Oeselians several distinctive rights regarding the ownership and inheritance of land, the social order, and the practice of religion.
Warfare erupted in 1261 as the Oeselians once more renounced Christianity and killed all the Germans on the island. A peace treaty was signed after the united forces of the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
, the
Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated ...
, and
Danish Estonia
Danish may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark
People
* A Danish person, also called a "Dane", can be a national or citizen of Denmark (see Demographics of Denmark)
* Culture of Denmark
* Danish people or Danes, ...
, including mainland Estonians and Latvians, defeated the Oeselians by capturing their stronghold at Kaarma. Soon thereafter, the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
established a stone fort at
Pöide.
On 24 July 1343 the Oeselians arose yet again, killing all the Germans on the island, drowning all the clerics, and besieging the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
's castle at Pöide. After the garrison surrendered the Oeselians massacred the defenders and destroyed the castle. In February 1344
Burchard von Dreileben led a campaign over the frozen sea to Saaremaa. The Oeselians' stronghold was conquered and their leader Vesse was hanged. In the early spring of 1345, the next campaign of the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
ended with a treaty mentioned in the Chronicle of
Hermann von Wartberge
Hermann von Wartberge (died ca. 1380) was a chronicler of the Livonian Order. Born in Westphalia, Wartberge was a Catholic priest and author of the valuable Latin chronicle ''Chronicon Livoniale'' covering the history of the Livonian Crusade from ...
and the
Novgorod First Chronicle
The Novgorod First Chronicle ( rus, Новгоро́дская пе́рвая ле́топись, Novgoródskaya pérvaya létopisʹ, nəvɡɐˈrot͡skəjə ˈpʲervəjə ˈlʲetəpʲɪsʲ, commonly abbreviated as NPL), also known by its 1914 Eng ...
.
Saaremaa remained the vassal of the master of the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
and the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek until 1559.
Wars against Curonians (1242–67)

Following the defeat of the Estonians, the crusade moved against
Curonians
:''The Kursenieki are also sometimes known as Curonians.''
The Curonians or Kurs (; ) were a medieval Balts, Baltic tribe living on the shores of the Baltic Sea in the 5th–16th centuries, in what are now western parts of Latvia and Lithuania. ...
and
Semigallians
Semigallians (; ; also ''Zemgalians'', ''Semigalls'' or ''Semigalians'') were the Balts, Baltic tribe that lived in the south central part of contemporary Latvia and northern Lithuania. They are noted for their long resistance (1219–1290) agai ...
,
Baltic
Baltic may refer to:
Peoples and languages
*Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian
*Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originatin ...
tribes living to the south and west of the
Daugava
The Daugava ( ), also known as the Western Dvina or the Väina River, is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea. The Daugava rises close to the source of ...
river and closely allied with
Samogitians
Samogitians ( Samogitian: ''žemaitē'', , ) are the inhabitants of Samogitia, an ethnographic region of Lithuania. Many speak the Samogitian language, which in Lithuania is mostly considered a dialect of the Lithuanian language together with t ...
.
In July 1210
Curonians
:''The Kursenieki are also sometimes known as Curonians.''
The Curonians or Kurs (; ) were a medieval Balts, Baltic tribe living on the shores of the Baltic Sea in the 5th–16th centuries, in what are now western parts of Latvia and Lithuania. ...
attacked
Riga
Riga ( ) is the capital, Primate city, primate, and List of cities and towns in Latvia, largest city of Latvia. Home to 591,882 inhabitants (as of 2025), the city accounts for a third of Latvia's total population. The population of Riga Planni ...
. After a day of fighting, the Curonians were unable to break through the city walls. They crossed to the other bank of the Daugava to burn their dead and mourn for three days. In 1228 Curonians together with
Semigallians
Semigallians (; ; also ''Zemgalians'', ''Semigalls'' or ''Semigalians'') were the Balts, Baltic tribe that lived in the south central part of contemporary Latvia and northern Lithuania. They are noted for their long resistance (1219–1290) agai ...
again attacked Riga. Although they were again unsuccessful in storming the city, they destroyed a monastery in
Daugavgriva and killed all the monks.
After the defeat of Estonians and Osilians in 1227, the Curonians were confronted by Lithuanian enemies in the east and south, and harassed by the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (; ) was a Catholic Church, Catholic Military order (monastic society), military order established in 1202 during the Livonian Crusade by Albert of Riga, Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theode ...
from the north; in the west, on the sea-shore, their arch-enemies, the Danes and Swedes, were lurking, waiting for an opportunity. In this hopeless situation, further aggravated by famine, the Curonians preferred to try to make peace with the Christian conquerors, inviting the monks into their country thereby escaping attacks by the Scandinavian nations.
[ Edgar V. Saks. ''Aestii''. 1960. p. 244.] In 1230 the Curonians in the northern part of Courland, under their ruler (''rex'') , signed a peace treaty with the Germans, and the lands they inhabited thus became known as ''Vredecuronia'' or ''Peace Courland''. The southern Curonians, however, continued to resist the invaders.
In 1260, the Curonians were involved in the
Battle of Durbe
The Battle of Durbe (, , ) was a medieval battle fought near Durbe, east of Liepāja, in present-day Latvia during the Livonian Crusade. On 13 July 1260, the Samogitians soundly defeated the joint forces of the Teutonic Knights from Prussia (r ...
, one of the biggest battles in Livonia in the 13th century. They were forced to fight on the crusader side. When the battle started, the Curonians abandoned the knights.
Peter von Dusburg Peter of Dusburg (; ; died after 1326), also known as Peter of Duisburg, was a Priest-Brother and chronicler of the Teutonic Knights. He is known for writing the '' Chronicon terrae Prussiae'', which described the 13th and early 14th century Teutoni ...
alleged that the Curonians even attacked the Knights from the rear. The
Estonians
Estonians or Estonian people () are a Finnic ethnic group native to the Baltic Sea region in Northern Europe, primarily their nation state of Estonia.
Estonians primarily speak the Estonian language, a language closely related to other Finni ...
and other local people soon followed the Curonians and abandoned the Knights and that allowed the
Samogitians
Samogitians ( Samogitian: ''žemaitē'', , ) are the inhabitants of Samogitia, an ethnographic region of Lithuania. Many speak the Samogitian language, which in Lithuania is mostly considered a dialect of the Lithuanian language together with t ...
to gain victory over the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
. It was a heavy defeat for the Order and uprisings against the crusaders soon afterwards broke out in the Curonian and
Prussian
Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, the House of Hohenzoll ...
lands.
Curonian resistance was finally subdued in 1266 when the whole of Courland was partitioned between the Livonian Order and the
Archbishop of Riga. The Curonian nobles, among them 40 clans of the descendants of the
Curonian Kings
Curonian Kings (; ; ) are a Latvian cultural group, originally lesser vassals and free farmers who lived in seven villages between Goldingen (Kuldīga) and Hasenpoth ( Aizpute) in Courland.
History
It is unclear how Curonian Kings gained t ...
, who lived in the town of
Kuldīga
Kuldīga () () is a town in the Courland region of Latvia, in the western part of the country. It is the center of Kuldīga Municipality with a population of approximately 13,500.
Kuldīga was first mentioned in 1242. It joined the Hanseatic L ...
, preserved personal freedom and some of their privileges.
[
]
Wars against Semigallians (1219–90)
According to the ''Livonian Chronicle of Henry
The ''Livonian Chronicle of Henry'' () is a Latin narrative of events in Livonia (roughly corresponding to today's Estonia and Latvia) and surrounding areas from 1180 to 1227. It was written by a priest named Henry. Apart from some references ...
'', Semigallians formed an alliance with bishop Albert of Riga
Albert of Riga or Albert of Livonia ( – 17 January 1229) was the third Catholic Bishop of Riga in Livonia. As the Bishop of Livonia, in 1201, he founded Riga, the modern capital city of Latvia, and the city was later made a bishopric. The bu ...
against rebellious Livonians
The Livonians, or Livs, are a Balto-Finnic people indigenous to the Livonian Coast, in northwestern Latvia. Livonians historically spoke Livonian language, Livonian, a Uralic language closely related to Estonian language, Estonian and Finnish lan ...
before 1203, and received military support to hold back Lithuanian attacks in 1205. In 1207, the Semigallian duke Viestards
Viestards (also ''Viesthard, Vesthardus, Viesturs''; died 1230) was a Semigallians, Semigallian duke in the 13th century, referred to as King Vester ().
Life
His capital was Tērvete hillfort. During the first decades of the 13th century he was ...
() helped the christened Livonian chief Caupo conquer back his Turaida Castle
Turaida Castle (, ; meaning ''Thor's garden'' in Livonian) is a recently reconstructed medieval castle in Turaida, in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, on the opposite bank of the Gauja River from Sigulda.
History
Turaida Castle dominates the Mus ...
from pagan rebels.
In 1219, the Semigallian–German alliance was cancelled after a crusader invasion in Semigallia. Duke Viestards promptly formed an alliance with Lithuanians and Curonians. In 1228, Semigallians and Curonians
:''The Kursenieki are also sometimes known as Curonians.''
The Curonians or Kurs (; ) were a medieval Balts, Baltic tribe living on the shores of the Baltic Sea in the 5th–16th centuries, in what are now western parts of Latvia and Lithuania. ...
attacked the Daugavgrīva
Daugavgrīva (; ; or ''Ust`-Dvinsk'') is a neighbourhood in North West Riga, Latvia on the left bank of the Daugava river. In this neighbourhood there is a Swedish-built fortress on the Daugava River's left bank, commanding its mouth.
Fortre ...
monastery, the main crusader stronghold at the Daugava river delta. The crusaders took revenge and invaded Semigallia. The Semigallians in turn pillaged land around the Aizkraukle hillfort.
In 1236, Semigallians attacked crusaders retreating to Riga after the Battle of Saule
The Battle of Saule (; ; ) was fought on 22 September 1236, between the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and pagan troops of Samogitians and Semigallians. Between 48 and 60 knights were killed, including the Livonian Master, Volkwin. It was the ea ...
, killing many of them.
After regular attacks, the Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
partly subdued the Semigallians in 1254.
In 1270, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Traidenis
Traidenis (; ; died 1282) was List of Lithuanian monarchs, Grand Duke of Lithuania from around late 1267 to 1268 until 1282. He is the second most prominent grand duke of Lithuania in the 13th century after Mindaugas. His reign ended a seven-year ...
, together with Semigallians, attacked Livonia and Saaremaa
Saaremaa (; ) is the largest and most populous island in Estonia. Measuring , its population is 31,435 (as of January 2020). The main island of the West Estonian archipelago (Moonsund archipelago), it is located in the Baltic Sea, south of Hi ...
. During the Battle of Karuse on the frozen Gulf of Riga
The Gulf of Riga, Bay of Riga, or Gulf of Livonia (, , ) is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia.
The island of Saaremaa (Estonia) partially separates it from the rest of the Baltic Sea. The main connection between the gulf and t ...
, the Livonian Order was defeated, and its master Otto von Lutterberg was killed.
In 1287, around 1400 Semigallians attacked a crusader stronghold in Ikšķile
Ikšķile (, ; , or ; ; ) is a town in Ogre Municipality, in the Vidzeme region of Latvia. It was the first capital of the Roman Catholic Bishopric of Livonia, known by the List of German exonyms for places in Latvia, German name of Uexküll, ...
and plundered nearby lands. As they returned to Semigallia they were caught by the Order's forces, and the great Battle of Garoza began near the Garoza river. The crusader forces were besieged and badly defeated. More than 40 knights were killed, including the master of the Livonian Order Willekin von Endorp, and an unknown number of crusader allies. It was the last Semigallian victory over the growing forces of the Livonian Order.
In 1279, after the Battle of Aizkraukle
The Battle of Aizkraukle or Ascheraden was fought on 5 March 1279 between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by Traidenis, and the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order near Aizkraukle () in present-day Latvia. The order suffered a great defeat: ...
, Grand Duke Traidenis of Lithuania supported a Semigallian revolt against the Livonian Order led by Duke Nameisis.
In the 1280s, the Livonian Order started a massive campaign against the Semigallians, which included burning their fields and thus causing famine. Semigallians continued their resistance until 1290, when they burned their last castle in and moved southwards. The '' Rhymed Chronicle'' claims that 100,000 migrated to Lithuania and once there continued to fight against the Germans.
The unconquered southern parts of Curonian and Semigallian territories ( Sidabrė, Raktė, Ceklis, Mėguva etc.) were united under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a sovereign state in northeastern Europe that existed from the 13th century, succeeding the Kingdom of Lithuania, to the late 18th century, when the territory was suppressed during the 1795 Partitions of Poland, ...
.
Aftermath
In 1227 the Livonian Brothers of the Sword
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (; ) was a Catholic Church, Catholic Military order (monastic society), military order established in 1202 during the Livonian Crusade by Albert of Riga, Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theode ...
conquered all Danish territories in Northern Estonia. After the Battle of Saule
The Battle of Saule (; ; ) was fought on 22 September 1236, between the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and pagan troops of Samogitians and Semigallians. Between 48 and 60 knights were killed, including the Livonian Master, Volkwin. It was the ea ...
the surviving members of the Brothers of the Sword merged into the Teutonic Order
The Teutonic Order is a religious order (Catholic), Catholic religious institution founded as a military order (religious society), military society in Acre, Israel, Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Sa ...
of Prussia in 1237 and became known as Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after thei ...
. On 7 June 1238, by the Treaty of Stensby, the Teutonic knights returned the Duchy of Estonia to Valdemar II, until in 1346, after St. George's Night Uprising, the lands were sold back to the order and became part of the Ordensstaat.
After the conquest, all of the remaining local population were ostensibly Christianized
Christianization (or Christianisation) is a term for the specific type of change that occurs when someone or something has been or is being converted to Christianity. Christianization has, for the most part, spread through missions by individu ...
. In 1535, the first extant native language book was printed, a Lutheran
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
catechism
A catechism (; from , "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of Catholic theology, doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult co ...
. The conquerors upheld military control through their network of castles throughout Estonia
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
and Latvia
Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
.
The land was divided into six feudal principalities by Papal Legate
300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the Pope's legate.
A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title '' legatus'') is a personal representative of the Pope to foreign nations, to some other part of the Catho ...
William of Modena
William of Modena ( – 31 March 1251), also known as ''William of Sabina'', ''Guglielmo de Chartreaux'', ''Guglielmo de Savoy'', ''Guillelmus'', was an Italian clergyman and papal diplomat. : Archbishopric of Riga
The Archbishopric of Riga (, ) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
History
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia a ...
, Bishopric of Courland
The Bishopric of Courland (, ) was the second smallest (4500 km2) Prince-bishopric, ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade. During the Livonian War in 1559 the bishopric became ...
, Bishopric of Dorpat
The Bishopric of Dorpat was a medieval prince-bishopric, i.e. both a diocese of the Roman Catholic Church and a temporal principality ruled by the bishop of the diocese. It existed from 1211 until 1558, generally encompassing the area that now co ...
, Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated ...
, the lands ruled by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (; ) was a Catholic Church, Catholic Military order (monastic society), military order established in 1202 during the Livonian Crusade by Albert of Riga, Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theode ...
and Dominum directum is a legal Latin term used to refer to the two separate estates in land that a fief was split into under feudal land tenure. This system is more commonly known as ''duplex dominium'' or double domain. This can be contrasted with the modern allodi ...
of King of Denmark
The monarchy of Denmark is a constitutional political system, institution and a historic office of the Kingdom of Denmark. The Kingdom includes Denmark proper and the autonomous administrative division, autonomous territories of the Faroe Is ...
, the Duchy of Estonia.
Battles
* Battle of Riga (1203)
* Battle of Koknese (1205)
* Battle of Salaspils (1206)
* Battle of Turaida (1206)
* Battle of Saaremaa, 1206
* Battle of Koknese (1208)
* Battle of Otepää (1208)
* Battle of Jersika, 1209
* Battle of Otepää (1210)
* Battle of Cēsis (1210)
* Battle of Ümera, 1210
* Battle of Turaida (1211)
* Battle of Viljandi, 1211
* Battle of Lehola, 1215
* Battle of Riga (1215)
* Battle of Soontagana, 1215
* Battle of Otepää, 1217
* Battle of Soontagana, 1217
*Battle of St. Matthew's Day
The Battle of Matthew's Day () was fought near Viljandi (probably in Vanamõisa, Viljandi County, Vanamõisa) on 21 September 1217 during the Livonian Crusade. The adversaries were the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, Sword Brethren (a German Cr ...
, 1217
* Battle of Lindanise, 1219
* Siege of Mežotne, 1219
*Battle of Lihula
The Battle of Lihula or Battle of Leal was fought between invading Sweden, Swedes and Estonians for the control of a castle in Lihula, Estonia in 1220. The exact date remains uncertain, though some historians suggest that the battle took place ...
, 1220
* Siege of Tallinn, 1221
* Battle of Soela, 1223
* Battle of the Ümera River Bridge, 1223
*Battle of Viljandi (1223)
On 29 January 1223, during a church service, the Sakala County, Sackalians attacked the Germans inside the stronghold of Viljandi. They killed Livonian Brothers of the Sword, Sword-Brothers, vartels, merchants, and even Mauritius, the vogt of Vi ...
* Siege of Tallinn (1223)
* Siege of Tartu, 1224
* Battle of Muhu, 1227
*Siege of Aizkraukle (1229)
A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characte ...
*Battle of Saule
The Battle of Saule (; ; ) was fought on 22 September 1236, between the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and pagan troops of Samogitians and Semigallians. Between 48 and 60 knights were killed, including the Livonian Master, Volkwin. It was the ea ...
, 1236
*Battle on the Ice
The Battle on the Ice, also known as the Battle of Lake Peipus, took place on 5 April 1242. It was fought on the frozen Lake Peipus when the united forces of the Novgorod Republic, Republic of Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal, led by Prince Alexande ...
, 1242
*Battle of Durbe
The Battle of Durbe (, , ) was a medieval battle fought near Durbe, east of Liepāja, in present-day Latvia during the Livonian Crusade. On 13 July 1260, the Samogitians soundly defeated the joint forces of the Teutonic Knights from Prussia (r ...
, 1260
* Siege of Tērvete (1259)
* Battle of Tērvete (1270)
*Battle of Aizkraukle
The Battle of Aizkraukle or Ascheraden was fought on 5 March 1279 between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by Traidenis, and the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order near Aizkraukle () in present-day Latvia. The order suffered a great defeat: ...
* Siege of Dobele (1279)
* Siege of Kernavė (1279)
*Battle of Tērvete (1280)
A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...
* Siege of Dobele (1281)
* Battle of Riga (1281)
* Battle of Tērvete (1281)
* Battle of Garoza 1287
* Battle of Dobele (1290)
See also
*''Livonian Chronicle of Henry
The ''Livonian Chronicle of Henry'' () is a Latin narrative of events in Livonia (roughly corresponding to today's Estonia and Latvia) and surrounding areas from 1180 to 1227. It was written by a priest named Henry. Apart from some references ...
''
*Wendish Crusade
The Wendish Crusade () was a military campaign in 1147, one of the Northern Crusades, led primarily by the Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire and directed against the Polabian Slavs (or "Wends"). The Wends were made up of the Slavic ...
* Baltic paganism
Notes
References
Bibliography
* {{cite journal , last=Brundage , first=James A. , title=The Thirteenth-Century Livonian Crusade: Henricus de Lettis and the First Legatine Mission of Bishop William of Modena , journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas , publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag , volume=20 , issue=1 , year=1972 , issn=0021-4019 , jstor=41044461 , pages=1–9 , url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41044461 , access-date=1 December 2024
External links
Saaremaa 1100–1227
13th century in Denmark
13th-century conflicts
13th-century crusades
Conflicts involving the Livonian Order
Medieval history of Sweden
Military history of Estonia
Military history of Latvia
Northern Crusades
Wars involving Denmark
Wars involving Estonia
Wars involving Latvia
Wars involving Livonia
Wars involving Sweden