English Criminal Law

English criminal law concerns offences, their prevention and the consequences, in England and Wales. Criminal conduct is considered to be a wrong against the whole of a community, rather than just the private individuals affected. The state, in addition to certain international organisations, has responsibility for crime prevention, for bringing the culprits to justice, and for dealing with convicted offenders. The police, the criminal courts and prisons are all publicly funded services, though the main focus of criminal law concerns the role of the courts, how they apply criminal statutes and common law, and why some forms of behaviour are considered criminal. The fundamentals of a crime are a guilty act (or ''actus reus'') and a guilty mental state (or ''mens rea''). The traditional view is that moral culpability requires that a defendant should have recognised or intended that they were acting wrongly, although in modern regulation a large number of offences relating to road traffic, environmental damage, financial services and corporations, create strict liability that can be proven simply by the guilty act.

Defences exist to crimes. A person who is accused may in certain circumstances plead they are insane and did not understand what they were doing, that they were not in control of their bodies, they were intoxicated, mistaken about what they were doing, acted in self defence, acted under duress or out of necessity, or were provoked. These are issues to be raised at trial, for which there are detailed rules of evidence and procedure to be followed.

History

England and Wales does not have a Criminal Code, though such an enactment has been often recommended and attempted (see English Criminal Code). Many criminal offences are common law offences rather being specified in legislation.

In 1980, a Committee of JUSTICE said that, upon conducting a search, they found over 7,200 offences, and that they thought that there were probably many more. They said that "it is now impossible to ascertain the entire content of the criminal law at any given time". In 1989, the Law Commission said that a hypothetical criminal code that contained all existing criminal offences would be "impossibly bulky". In 2001, Peter Glazebrook said the criminal law was "voluminous, chaotic and contradictory". In March 2011, there were more than ten thousand offences excluding those created by by-laws.

In 1999, P J Richardson said that as the case for a moratorium on legislation in the field of criminal justice was becoming stronger and stronger, governments seemed ever more determined to bring forward more legislation.

* Treason Act 1351 and Hanged, drawn and quartered. Petty treason and High treason in the United Kingdom
* Suppression of Heresy Act 1414 and John Wycliffe
*'' Carrier's Case'' (1473) YB Pasch 13 Edw. IV, f. 9., pl. 5, larceny
* Jesuits, etc. Act 1584
*'' Bushel's Case'' (1670) 124 E.R. 1006 writ of habeas corpus
* Habeas Corpus Act 1679
* Transportation Act 1717
* Black Act 1723
* Jacobite rising of 1745 and Transportation Act 1746 and 1768
* Murder Act 1751
*'' King v Pear'' (1779) 168 Eng Rep 208, larceny by trick
*'' Trial of Lord George Gordon'' (1781) for treason for the Gordon riots
*'' Case of the Dean of St Asaph'' or '' R v Shipley'' (1784) 4 Doug 73, seditious libel
* Burning of women in England and Treason Act 1790
*'' Bazeley's Case'' (1799) 2 East P.C. 571, establishing crime of embezzlement
* Debtors' prison
*Offences Against the Person Act 1828
* Bloody Code
* Forfeiture Act 1870
*Capital punishment in the United Kingdom
*''C'' 009UKHL 42
*'' Clingham v RB Kensington and Chelsea'' 002UKHL 39
*'' Collins v DPP'' 006UKHL 40
*''JTB'' 009UKHL 20
*'' R v K'' 001UKHL 41
*'' Norris v United States'' 008UKHL 16
*'' R (Purdy) v DPP'' 009UKHL 45
*'' R v Rahman'' 008UKHL 45
*'' GG plc'' 008UKHL 17
*'' R v Rimmington and Goldstein'' 005UKHL 63
*'' R v Saik'' 006UKHL 18
*'' R v Sheldrake'' 004UKHL 43
*'' Hashnan and Harrup'' (2000) 30 EHRR 241

Criminal law elements

The two basic elements of a crime are the act of doing that which is criminal, and the intention to carry it out. In Latin this is called the ''actus reus'' and the ''mens rea''. In many crimes however, there is no necessity of showing a guilty mind, which is why the term "strict liability" is used.

Actus reus

''Actus reus'' is Latin for "guilty act" and is the physical element of committing a crime. It is usually the application or threat of unlawful force, though exceptionally an omission or failure to act can result in liability. Simple examples might be A hitting B with a stick, or X pushing Y down a water well. These are guilty acts and the unlawful application or force. Alternatively, one may have a pre-existing duty to another person and by deliberately not performing it, one commits a crime. For instance, not giving food is an omission rather than an act, but as a parent one has a duty to feed one's children. Pre-existing duties can arise also through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation with whom one lives, and occasionally through one's official position. As the 19th century English judge, Lord Coleridge CJ wrote,

It would not be correct to say that every moral obligation involves a legal duty; but every legal duty is founded on a moral obligation.

Furthermore, one can become bound by a duty to take reasonable steps to correct a dangerous situation that one creates. In '' R v Miller'' a squatter flicked away a still lit cigarette, which landed on a mattress. He failed to take action, and after the building had burned down, he was convicted of arson. He failed to correct the dangerous situation he created, as he was duty bound to do. In many countries in Europe and North America, Good Samaritan laws also exist, which criminalize failure to help someone in distress (e.g. a drowning child). On the other hand, it was held in the U.K. that switching off the life support of someone in a persistent vegetative state is an omission to act and not criminal. Since discontinuation of power is not a voluntary act, not grossly negligent, and is in the patient's best interests, no crime takes place.

If someone's act is to have any consequence legally, it must have in some way caused a victim harm. The legal definition of "causation" is that " but for" the defendant's conduct, the victim would not have been harmed. If more than one cause for harm exists (e.g. harm comes at the hands of more than one culprit) the rule states that to be responsible, one's actions must have "more than a slight or trifling link" to the harm. Another important rule of causation is that one must "take his victim as he finds him". For instance, if P gives his friend Q a playful slap on the head, but Q suffers from a rare cranial condition and dies, then P can be guilty of manslaughter regardless of how unlucky he is to have bickered with Q. This is known as the thin skull rule.

Between the defendant's acts and the victim's harm, the chain of causation must be unbroken. It could be broken by the intervening act (''novus actus interveniens'') of a third party, the victim's own conduct, or another unpredictable event. A mistake in medical treatment usually will not break the chain, unless the mistakes are in themselves "so potent in causing death". For instance, if emergency medics dropped a stab victim on the way to the hospital and performed the wrong resuscitation, the attacker would not be absolved of the crime.

The interplay between causation and criminal responsibility is notoriously difficult, and many outcomes are criticized for their harshness to the unwitting defendant and sidestepping of hospitals' or the victim's own liability. In '' R v Dear'' a stab victim reopened his wounds while in the hospital and died. But despite this suicidal behavior, the attacker was still held fully responsible for murder.

*'' R v Holland'' (1841) 2 Mood. & R. 351 break in causal chain
*''R v Instan'' (1893) 1 QB 450 duty of care, to not omit to help some dying of gangrene
*'' R v Smith (Thomas Joseph)'' 959QB, negligence of medics does not stop murder
*'' R v Hughes'' 013UKSC 56, driver who was not as fault for a crash could not be responsible for others deaths although he was prosecuted for driving without a licence or insurance

Mens rea

''Mens rea'' is another Latin phrase, meaning "guilty mind". It is the mental element of committing a crime and establishes the element of intent. Together with an ''actus reus'', ''mens rea'' forms the bedrock of criminal law, although strict liability offenses have encroached on this notion. A guilty mind means intending to do that which harms someone. Intention under criminal law is separate from a person's motive. '' R v Mohan'' 9752 All ER 193, intention defined as "a decision to bring about... he ''actus reus''no matter whether the accused desired that consequence of his act or not." In the special case of murder, the defendant must have appreciated (i.e. consciously recognized) that either death or serious bodily harm would be the result of his actions. In '' R v Woolin'', a man in a fit of temper threw his three-month-old son onto a wall, causing head injuries from which he died. Although death was certain and the father should have realized, he did not in the least desire that his son be killed or harmed. The English House of Lords sentenced him for manslaughter, but not murder. If a defendant has foresight of death or serious injury the jury may, but is not bound to, find the requisite ''mens rea''.

A lower threshold of ''mens rea'' is satisfied when a defendant recognizes that some act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance if C tears a gas meter from a wall to get the money inside, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor's house, he could be liable for poisoning. This is called "subjective recklessness", though in some jurisdictions "objective recklessness" qualifies as the requisite criminal intent, so that if someone ought to have recognized a risk and nevertheless proceeded, he may be held criminally liable. A novel aspect of the law on intention is that if one intends to harm somebody, it matters not who is actually harmed through the defendant's actions. The doctrine of transferred malice means, for instance, that if a man strikes another with his belt, but the belt bounces off and hits a nearby woman, the man is guilty of battery toward her. Malice can also be general, so that terrorists who plant bombs to kill random people are certainly guilty.

The final requirement states that both an ''actus reus'' and a ''mens rea'' coincide. For instance, in '' R v Church'', For instance, Mr. Church had a fight with a woman which rendered her unconscious. He attempted to revive her, but gave up, believing her to be dead. He threw her, still alive, in a nearby river, where she drowned. The court held that Mr. Church was not guilty of murder (because he did not ever desire to kill her), but was guilty of manslaughter. The "chain of events", his act of throwing her into the water and his desire to hit her, coincided. In this manner, it does not matter when a guilty mind and act coincide, as long as at some point they do.

*'' R v Steane'' 947KB 997, defective intent to help the Nazis, by doing radio broadcasts, rather than help family
*'' Fagan v Metropolitan Police Commissioner'' 9691 QB 439
*'' R v Parker'' 9771 WLR 600
*'' R v Heard'' 007EWCA Crim 125
*'' R v Faulkner'' (1877) 13 Cox CC 550 mens rea for one act does not transfer to others

Strict liability

Not all crimes have a mens rea requirement, or the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly. In offences of absolute liability, other than the prohibited act, it may not be necessary to show anything at all, even if the defendant would not normally be perceived to be at fault.

England and Wales has strict liability offences, which criminalize behavior without the need to show a criminal mens rea. Most strict liability offences are created by statute, and often they are the result of ambiguous drafting. They are usually regulatory in nature, where the result of breach could have particularly harmful results. An example is drunk driving.

*'' R v Woodrow'' (1846) 15 M&W 404 selling impure food, strict liability, overturning '' R v Dixon'' (1814) 3 M. & S. 11 that required mens rea
*'' R v Stephens'' (1866) LR 1 QB 702 strict liability for dumping refuse into a river, despite the defendant (ostensibly) having no knowledge
*'' Betts v Armstead'' (1888) LR 20 QBD 771
*'' Fitzpatrick v Kelly'' (1873) LR 8 QB 337 food safety
*'' Sweet v Parsley'' 970AC 132 mens rea needed for liability for cannibis being smoked on premises, statutory construction presumes a mens rea
*'' R v Lambert'' UKHL 37
cocaine possession claiming no knowledge
*Road Traffic Act 1988">001
UKHL 37
cocaine possession claiming no knowledge
*Road Traffic Act 1988 s 3ZB

Corporate crime

Serious torts and fatal injuries occur as a result of actions by company employees, have increasingly been subject to criminal sanctions. All torts committed by employees in the course of employment will attribute liability to their company even if acting wholly outside authority, so long as there is some temporal and close connection to work. It is also clear that acts by directors become acts of the company, as they are "the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation". But despite strict liability in tort, civil remedies are in some instances insufficient to provide a deterrent to a company pursuing business practices that could seriously injure the life, health and environment of other people. Even with additional regulation by government bodies, such as the Health and Safety Executive or the Environment Agency, companies may still have a collective incentive to ignore the rules in the knowledge that the costs and likelihood of enforcement is weaker than potential profits. Criminal sanctions remain problematic, for instance if a company director had no intention to harm anyone, no ''mens rea'', and managers in the corporate hierarchy had systems to prevent employees committing offences. One step toward reform is found in the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007. This creates a criminal offence for manslaughter, meaning a penal fine of up to 10 per cent of turnover against companies whose managers conduct business in a grossly negligent fashion, resulting in deaths. Without lifting the veil there remains, however, no personal liability for directors or employees acting in the course of employment, for corporate manslaughter or otherwise. The quality of a company's accountability to a broader public and the conscientiousness of its behaviour must rely also, in great measure, on its governance.

* Criminal Finances Act 2017
* Proceeds of Crime Act 2002

Participatory and inchoate offences

* Encouraging or assisting crime - Part 2 of the Serious Crime Act 2007
* Soliciting to murder, contrary to section 4 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861
*Aiding, abetting, counselling or procuring the commission of an offence
*Conspiracy, contrary to section 1(1) of the Criminal Law Act 1977
* Conspiracy to defraud
*Conspiracy to corrupt public morals
*Conspiracy to outrage public decency
*Attempt, contrary to section 1(1) of the Criminal Attempts Act 1981

Parts 1 to 3 of Schedule 3 to the Serious Crime Act 2007 list numerous statutory offences of assisting, encouraging, inciting, attempting or conspiring at the commission of various crimes.

*'' R v Shivpuri'' UKHL 2
reversing ''Anderton v Ryan">986
UKHL 2
reversing ''Anderton v Ryan'' [1985
AC 560
attempting the impossible
*''R v Anderson'' 986AC 27
*''R v Betts and Ridley'' (1930) 22 Cr App R, accessory to crime need not be present
*''R v Clarkson'' (1971) 55 Cr. App. Rep. 445 for aiding and abetting, need evidence of actually encouraging a crime
*'' R v Gnango'' UKSC 59
joint enterprise
*'' 011
UKSC 59
joint enterprise
*''R v Jogee'' [2016">R v Jogee">011
UKSC 59
joint enterprise
*''R v Jogee'' [2016UKSC 8 joint enterprise in a stabbing, need to act or encourage an offence
*''R v Reed'' 982Crim. L.R. 819 suicide pact conspiracy
*''R v Richards'' [1974] 1 QB 776 accomplice cannot be convicted of worse offence than the main actor even if he has the mens rea for one

;Inchoate
* Serious Crime Act 2007 ss 44-46
* Criminal Law Act 1977 ss 1-5
* Criminal Justice Act 1987 s 12 and 1988 s 39
*'' Wai Yu-tsang v R'' 9921 AC 269
*'' R v Stracusa'' (1990) 90 Cr App R 340
*'' R v Sadique'' 013EWCA Crim 1150

;Complicity
*'' R v Stringer (Ian)'' 012EWCA Crim 1396
*'' R v Rook'' 993Crim LR 698
*'' R v Giametto'' 9979 Cr App R 1
*'' R v Daley'' 015EWCA Crim 1515
* Terrorism Act 2000 s 11

Criminal offences & key cases

Homicide

In Statute

* Homicide Act 1957 ss 2-4
* Infanticide Act 1938 s 1
* Road Traffic Act 1988 s 143

In Case Law

* '' Attorney General's Reference (No 3 of 1994)'' 998AC 245
* '' R (Nicklinson) v Ministry of Justice'' 014UKSC 34
* '' R v Adams'' 957Crim LR 365
* '' R v Adomako'' 994UKHL 6, elements of gross negligence manslaughter
* '' R v Ahluwalia'' 992EWCA Crim 1, loss of control as a defence, domestic violence situations
* '' R v Brennan'' 014EWCA Crim 2387
* '' R v Dear'' 996Crim LR 595, chain of causation
* '' R v Golds'' UKSC 61
* '' 016
UKSC 61
* ''R v Hancock'' [1985">R v Hancock">016
UKSC 61
* ''R v Hancock'' [1985UKHL 9, foresight needed for murder
* ''R v Wallace'' (1931) 23 Cr App R 32 murder conviction overturned for being unreasonable
* ''R v Woollin'' [1999] 1 AC 82

Non-fatal offences against the person

In Statute

* Domestic Abuse Act 2021 ss 71, consent to serious harm for sexual gratification not a defence
* Mental Capacity Act 2005 ss 2-3
* Offences Against the Person Act 1861
* Protection from Harassment Act 1997 ss 1-4
* Serious Crime Act 2007

In Case Law

* '' R v Brown'' 993UKHL 19, consent not a defence to Actual Bodily Harm or Grievous Bodily Harm for sexual pleasure
* '' R v Colohan'' 001EWCA Crim 1251
* '' R v Coney'' (1882) 8 QBD 534, bare knuckle fight with consent still assault and actual bodily harm
* ''R v Constanza'' 9972 Cr App Rep 492, meaning of assault, need not be immediate
* '' R v Savage'' 992UKHL 1, mens rea for assault
* '' R v Wilson (Alan)'' 997QC 47

Sexual offences

In Statute

* Sexual Offences Act 1956
* Sexual Offences Act 2003
* Protection from Harassment Act 1997 ss 1-4

In Case Law

*'' R (F) v DPP'' 013EWHC 945
* '' R v B'' 013EWCA Crim 823
* ''R v Bowden'' 0002 All ER 418, child pornography
* '' R v Bree'' 007EWCA Crim 804
* ''R v Evans and McDonald'' 012EWCA Crim 2559, rape verdict overturned

*'' R v McNalley'' 013EWCA Crim 1051
*'' R v Oluboja'' 982QC 320
*'' R v Peacock'' 012conviction quashed under the Obscene Publications Act 1959 for hardcore pornography
*'' R v Penguin Books Ltd'' DH Lawrence, '' Lady Chatterley's Lover'' (1960) and the Obscene Publications Act 1959
*'' R v Prince'' (1875) LR 2 CCR 154 responsibility for underage sex even though belief girl was 18, not 14
*'' R v R'' 991UKHL 12 a husband can be convicted of raping wife

Theft, handling, and robbery

In Statute

* Theft Act 1968
* Theft Act 1978

In Case Law

*'' Haughton v Smith'' 975AC 476, no crime of handling when goods not stolen
*'' Ivey v Genting Casinos (UK) Ltd'' 017UKSC 67, although not a criminal case, ''Ivey'' unified the civil and criminal tests for dishonesty
*'' Oxford v Moss'' (1979) 68 Cr App Rep 183, information could not be property
*'' R v Barton and Booth'' 020EWCA Crim 575, resolved dispute about applicability of ''Ivey''
*'' R v Bloxham'' 983AC 109
*'' R v Collins'' 973QB 100, entering as a trespasser for burglary
*''R v Garwood'' 987Crim LR 476
*'' R v Gomez'' 993AC 442
*'' R v Hale'' 979Crim LR 596
*''R v Hall'' 9731 QB 126
*'' R v Hayes'' 015EWCA Crim 1944
*'' R v Hinks'' 000UKHL 53 meaning of "appropriates"
*'' R v Lawrence v Metropolitan Police Commissioner'' 972AC 262, appropriation of property, taxi cab
*'' R v Marshall'' 9982 Cr App R 282, meaning of 'permanently deprive'
*'' R v Morris; Anderton v Burnside'' 984UKHL, 1 meaning of "appropriates"

Burglary

In Statute

* Theft Act 1968

In Case Law

* '' B and S v Leathley'' 979Crim LR 314, structures that may be buildings
* '' Norfolk Constabulary v Seekings and Gould'' 986Crim LR 167, structures that are not buildings
* '' R v Brown'' 985Crim LR 212, 'effective entry', not to be confused with consent to harm case '' R v Brown'' 993UKHL 19
* '' R v Collins'' 973QB 100
* '' R v Jones & Smith'' 9751 WLR 672, meaning of 'as a trespasser'
* '' R v Walkington'' 9792 All ER 716, meaning of 'part of a building'

Criminal damage

In Statute

* Computer Misuse Act 1990
* Criminal Damage Act 1971
* Crime and Disorder Act 1998 s 30

In Case Law

* '' Morphitis v Salmon'' (1989) 154 JP 365, defined damage to mean "permenent icor temporary impairment of value or usefulness"
* '' R v Caldwell'' 982AC 341
* '' R v G'' 003UKHL 50, subjective recklessness standard abolishing ''Caldwell'' recklessness
* '' R v Hill and Hall'' (1989) 89 Cr App R 74
* '' R v Steer'' 987UKHL

Fraud

* Fraud Act 2006
* Theft Act 1968 s 32 "cheating the Revenue" is an offence
*'' R v Chaytor'' 010UKSC 52, false accounting for Parliamentary expenses, no privilege protection
*'' R v Ingram'' 003EWCA Crim, cheating by coughing to win Who wants to be a millionaire
*'' R v Kylsant'' 931falsifying Royal Mail trading prospectus
*'' R v Valujevs'' 014EWCA Crim 2888
*Forgery
*Offences under Part I of the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981
*Falsification of pedigree, contrary t
section 183(1)(b)
of the Law of Property Act 1925
*Improper alteration of the registers, contrary t
section 124
of the Land Registration Act 2002
*Offences unde
section 8
of the Non-Parochial Registers Act 1840
*Offences under sections 36 and 37 of the Forgery Act 1861
*Forgery of passport, contrary t
section 36
of the Criminal Justice Act 1925
*Offences under sections 133 and 135 of the County Courts Act 1984
*Offences unde
section 13
of the Stamp Duties Management Act 1891; and supplementary offences under section
14
an
15
*Offences unde
section 6
of the Hallmarking Act 1973
*Offences unde
section 126
of the Mental Health Act 1983
*Offences under section
121
an
122(6)
of the Gun Barrel Proof Act 1868
Motor vehicle document offences:
*Offences under section 97AA and 99(5) of the Transport Act 1968
*Offences under section 65 of the Public Passenger Vehicles Act 1981
*Offences under section 115 of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984
*Offences under section 173 of the Road Traffic Act 1988
*Offences under regulations 11(1) to (3) of the Motor Vehicles (E.C. Type Approval) Regulations 1992 (S.I. 1992/3107) made under section 2(2) of the European Communities Act 1972
*Offences under section 44 of the Vehicles Excise and Registration Act 1994
*Offences under regulations 10(1) to (3) the Motor Cycle (E.C. Type Approval) Regulations 1995 (S.I. 1995/1531) made under section 2(2) of the European Communities Act 1972
*Offences under section 38 of the Goods Vehicles (Licensing of Operators) Act 1995
* Personation
* Personation of a juror
*Offences under section 90(1) of the Police Act 1996
*Offences under section 30(1) of the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005
*Offences under section 34 of the Forgery Act 1861
*Offences under section 24 of the Family Law Reform Act 1969
*Offences under section 60 of the Representation of the People Act 1983
* Cheating (law)
*Offences under section 17 of the Gaming Act 1845
*Offences under section 1 of the Fraudulent Mediums Act 1951

Offences against the state

* High treason in the United Kingdom
* Misprision of treason
* Compounding treason
* Treason felony
*Attempting to injure or alarm the Sovereign, contrary to section 2 of the Treason Act 1842
* Contempt of the sovereign
* Trading with the enemy
*Offences under the Official Secrets Acts 1911 to 1989
*Offences under the Incitement to Disaffection Act 1934
*Causing disaffection, contrary to section 91 of the Police Act 1996
*Causing disaffection, contrary t
section 6
of the Ministry of Defence Police Act 1987
*Incitement to sedition or disaffection or promoting industrial unrest, contrary to section 3 of the Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act 1919
*Offences of procuring and assisting desertion under military law
*Offences relating to terrorism
*Offences of directing quasi military organisations and wearing uniforms for political purposes under the Public Order Act 1936
* Piracy iure gentium
*Piracy with violence, contrary to the Piracy Act 1837
*Offences under the Slave Trade Act 1824
*Offences under the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870
*Offences under the Immigration Act 1971
*Coinage offences under Part II of the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981
*Offences relating to public stores under the Public Stores Act 1875
*Offences relating to military stores under military law
*Offences against postal and electronic communication services
* Misconduct in public office
*Refusal to execute public office
*Offences of selling public offices under the Sale of Offices Act 1551 and Sale of Offices Act 1809
*Purchasing the office of clerk of the peace or under-sheriff, contrary t
section 27
of the Sheriffs Act 1887
* Cheating the public revenue
*Offences under the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979
*Tax evasion and money laundering offences
* Offences against military law in the United Kingdom

Other offences

* Offences under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the Intoxicating Substances (Supply) Act 1985, the Licensing Act 2003, section 7 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 and other provisions relating to tobacco, and the Drug Trafficking Act 1994.
* Offences under the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016.
*Firearms and offensive weapons offences (see also Gun politics in the United Kingdom)
*Offences under section 1(1) of the Prevention of Crime Act 1953
*Offences under sections 139 and 139A of the Criminal Justice Act 1988
*Offences under the Knives Act 1997
*Offences under sections 75 to 77 of the Marriage Act 1949
*Offences under section 2 of the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860
*Offences under section 7 of the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880
*Offences under section 59 of the Cemeteries Clauses Act 1847
*Offences under articles 18 and 19 of the Local Authorities' Cemeteries Order 1977 (SI 1977/204)
*Doing an act tending and intended to pervert the course of public justice – a.k.a. perverting the course of justice, defeating the ends of justice, obstructing the administration of justice
*Concealing evidence, contrary to section 5(1) of the Criminal Law Act 1967
* Contempt of court, specifically criminal contempt
* Intimidation, contrary to section 51(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
*Taking or threatening to take revenge, contrary to section 51(2) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
* Perjury, contrary to section 1 of the Perjury Act 1911
*Perjury, contrary to section 6 of the Piracy Act 1850
*Offences under sections 2 to 4 of the Perjury Act 1911
*Making a false statutory declaration, contrary to section 5 of the Perjury Act 1911
*Offences under section 6 of the Perjury Act 1911
* Fabrication of false evidence
*Offences under section 89 of the Criminal Justice Act 1967
*Offences under 106 of the Magistrates' Courts Act 1980
*Offences under section 11(1) of the European Communities Act 1972
*Escape
*Permitting an escape
*Assisting a prisoner to escape, contrary to section 39 of the Prison Act 1952
*Breach of prison/breaking prison
*Rescue/rescuing a prisoner in custody
*Harbouring an escaped prisoner, contrary to section 22(2) of the Prison Act 1952
*Taking part in a prison mutiny, contrary to section 1(1) of the Prison Security Act 1992
*Offences under section 128 of the Mental Health Act 1983
*Causing a wasteful employment of the police, contrary to section 5(2) of the Criminal Law Act 1967
*Administering an unlawful oath, contrary to section 13 of the Statutory Declarations Act 1835
*Offences under the Public Order Act 1986
*Offences under section 31 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998
*Offences under Part V of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
*Offences under Part II of the Criminal Law Act 1977
*Offences under the Protection from Eviction Act 1977
*Bomb hoaxes, contrary to section 51 of the Criminal Law Act 1977
*Offences against public morals and public policy
*Bigamy, contrary to section 57 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861
*Offences under section 2(1) of the Obscene Publications Act 1959 (see also Obscenity and Indecency)
*Offences under section 2(2) of the Theatres Act 1968

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