Wu Zetian (624 – 16 December 705),
personal name Wu Zhao, was
Empress of China
The following is a list of empresses and queens consort of China. China has periodically been divided into kingdoms as well as united under empires, resulting in consorts titled both queen and empress. The empress title could also be given post ...
from 660 to 705, ruling first through others and later in her own right. She ruled as
empress consort through her husband
Emperor Gaozong and later as
empress dowager
Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother; ) is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a monarch, especially in regards to Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese monarchs in the Chines ...
through her sons Emperors
Zhongzong and
Ruizong, from 660 to 690. She subsequently founded and ruled as Empress
Regnant of the
Wu Zhou
Zhou, known in historiography as the Wu Zhou (), was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that existed between 690 and 705. The dynasty consisted of the reign of one empress regnant, Wu Zhao (Wu Zetian), who usurped the throne of her son, ...
dynasty of China from 16 October 690 to 21 February 705.
She was the only female
sovereign
''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...
in the history of China who is widely
regarded as legitimate.
Under her 45-year reign, China grew larger, becoming one of the
great powers
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power ...
of the world, its culture and economy were revitalized, and corruption in the court was reduced. She was eventually removed from power during a coup () and died a few months later.
In early life, Wu was the
concubine
Concubinage is an interpersonal relationship, interpersonal and Intimate relationship, sexual relationship between two people in which the couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarde ...
of
Emperor Taizong.
After his death, she married his ninth son and successor, Emperor Gaozong, officially becoming Gaozong's ''
huanghou'' (), or empress consort, the highest-ranking of the wives, in 655.
Wu had considerable political power even before becoming empress consort, and began to control the court after her appointment. After Gaozong's debilitating stroke in 660, she became administrator of the court, a position with similar authority to the emperor's, until 683. History records that she "was at the helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor." On Emperor Gaozong's death in 683, rather than entering into retirement (as was customary for royal widows), or not interfering in the government (according to the emperor's law, when he reaches the age of 17, he must rule by himself); Wu broke with tradition and took acquisition of complete power, refusing to allow any of her sons to rule. She took the throne in 690 by officially changing the name of the country from Tang to Zhou, changing the name of the royal family from Li to Wu, and holding a formal ceremony to crown herself as emperor.
Empress Wu is considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history due to her strong leadership and effective governance, which made China one of the world's most powerful nations. The importance to history of her tenure includes the major expansion of the Chinese empire, extending it far beyond its previous territorial limits, deep into
Central Asia
Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
, and engaging in a series of wars on the
Korean Peninsula
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Dem ...
, first
allying with Silla against Goguryeo, and then
against Silla over the occupation of former
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (; ; Old Korean: Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''kwòwlyéy''), was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korea, Korean Peninsula an ...
territory. Within China, besides the more direct consequences of her struggle to gain and maintain power, Wu's leadership resulted in important effects regarding social class in Chinese society and in relation to state support for
Taoism
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
,
Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
,
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
, education and literature.
Wu played a key role in reforming the
imperial examination system and encouraging capable officials to work in governance to maintain a peaceful and well-governed state. Effectively, these reforms improved her nation's bureaucracy by ensuring that competence, rather than family connections, became a key feature of the civil service. Wu also had an important impact upon the statuary of the
Longmen Grottoes
The Longmen Grottoes () or Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province, ...
and the "Wordless Stele" at the
Qian Mausoleum, as well as the construction of some major buildings and bronze castings that no longer survive. Besides her career as a political leader, Wu also had an active family life. She was a mother of four sons, three of whom also carried the title of emperor, although one held that title only as a posthumous honor. One of her grandsons became the controversial
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was an Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. Throu ...
, whose reign marked the turning point of the Tang dynasty into sharp decline.
Names and titles
In Chinese history and literature, Wu Zetian () was known by various names and titles. Mention of her in the English language has only increased their number. A difficulty in English translations is that they tend to specify gender (as in the case of "emperor" versus "empress" or "prince" versus "princess"), whereas, in
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from . For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in a form now called Literary ...
, words such as ''hou'' (, "sovereign", "prince", "queen") or ''huangdi'' , "imperial supreme ruler", "royal deity") are of
grammatically indeterminate gender.
Names
In Wu's time, women's birth names were rarely recorded. She changed her name to Wu Zhao after rising to power,
often written as , ( has also been written as on occasion, and both are derivatives of , which may be her original name), with 瞾 being one of the invented characters by Wu. Wu was her patronymic surname, which she retained, according to traditional Chinese practice, after marriage to Gaozong, of the Li family. Emperor Taizong gave her the
art name
An art name (pseudonym or pen name), also known by its native names ''hào'' (in Mandarin Chinese), ''gō'' (in Japanese), ' (in Korean), and ''tên hiệu'' (in Vietnamese), is a professional name used by artists, poets and writers in the Sinosp ...
Wu Mei (), meaning "glamorous".
Thus, Chinese people often refer to her as Wu Mei or Wu Meiniang () when they write about her youth, as Wu Hou () when referring to her as empress consort and empress dowager, and as Wu Zetian () as her posthumous title, given only after her death.
Because her family name, Wu (武), is a homophone for the second character in parrot (鹦鹉), there are many stories and jokes that make use of imagery of a parrot to communicate about Wu and her clan.
In particular, Emperor Gaozong's family name, Li (唐), is a homophone with a type of cat -- so a story circulated about a cat eating a parrot at court.
Titles
During her life, and posthumously, Wu was awarded various official titles. Both ''hou'' () and ''huangdi'' () are titles (modifications, or added characters to ''hou'' are of lesser importance). Born Wu Zhao, she is not properly known as "Wu Hou" (Empress Wu) until receiving this title in 655, nor is she properly known as "Wu Zetian", her regnal name, until 690, when she took the title Emperor.
* During the reign of
Emperor Gaozu of Tang
Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635), born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude, was the founding Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626 CE. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in t ...
(618–626):
** Lady Wu (from 624)
* During the reign of
Emperor Taizong of Tang
Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty fo ...
(626–649):
** Talented Lady (; from 637), 17th rank consort
* During the reign of
Emperor Gaozong of Tang
Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683), personal name Li Zhi, was the third Emperor of China, emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty, ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over the empire to his second wife ...
(649–683):
** Imperial Concubine Zhaoyi (; from 650), 6th rank consort
** Empress (; from 655), 1st rank consort
** Heavenly Empress (; from 674), 1st rank consort
* During the reign of
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (26 November 656 – 3 July 710), personal name Li Xian, and at other times Li Zhe or Wu Xian, was the fourth and seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710. During ...
(684-684):
** Empress Dowager Wu (; from 683)
* During the reign of
Emperor Ruizong of Tang
Emperor Ruizong of Tang (22 June 662 – 13 July 716), personal name Li Dan, also known at times during his life as Li Xulun, Li Lun, Wu Lun, and Wu Dan, was the fifth and ninth emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty. He was the eighth son of Emp ...
(684–690)
** Empress Dowager Wu (; from 684)
*During her reign as the Empress Regnant of the Zhou dynasty (690–705):
** Holy Emperor (; from 690)
** Holy Golden Emperor (; from 693)
** Holy Golden Goddess Emperor (; from 694)
** Holy Golden Emperor (; from 695)
** Emperor Tiance Jinlun (; from 695)
** Emperor Zetian Dasheng (; from 705)
* During the second reign of
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (26 November 656 – 3 July 710), personal name Li Xian, and at other times Li Zhe or Wu Xian, was the fourth and seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710. During ...
(705–710):
** Empress Zetian Dasheng (; from 705)
*During the second reign of
Emperor Ruizong of Tang
Emperor Ruizong of Tang (22 June 662 – 13 July 716), personal name Li Dan, also known at times during his life as Li Xulun, Li Lun, Wu Lun, and Wu Dan, was the fifth and ninth emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty. He was the eighth son of Emp ...
(710–712):
** Heavenly Empress (; from 710)
** Holy Empress (; from 710)
** Empress of Heaven (; from 712)
**Holy Empress (; from 712)
*During the reign of
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was an Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. Throu ...
(713–756):
**Empress Zetian (; from 716)
**Holy Empress Zetianshun (; from 749)
"Empress"
Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of
empress consort
A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king, and usually shares her spouse's social rank and status. She holds the feminine equivalent of the king's monarchical titles and may be crowned and anointed, but historically she does not formally ...
and
empress regnant
A queen regnant (: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank, title and position to a king. She reigns '' suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a kingdom; as opposed to a queen consort, who is married to a reigni ...
. Generally, the monarch was male and his chief spouse was given a title such as ''huanghou'' (), often translated as "empress" or more specifically "empress consort". Upon the emperor's death, the surviving empress consort could become
empress dowager
Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother; ) is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a monarch, especially in regards to Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese monarchs in the Chines ...
, sometimes wielding considerable political power as
regent
In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
during the
minority
Minority may refer to:
Politics
* Minority government, formed when a political party does not have a majority of overall seats in parliament
* Minority leader, in American politics, the floor leader of the second largest caucus in a legislative b ...
of the (male) heir to the position of emperor.
Since the time of
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang (, ; February 25912 July 210 BC), born Ying Zheng () or Zhao Zheng (), was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of China. He is widely regarded as the first ever supreme leader of a unitary state, unitary d ...
(259–210 BC), the
Emperor of China
Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" () was the superlative title held by the monarchs of imperial China's various dynasties. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the " Son of Heaven", an autocrat with the divine mandat ...
using the title ''huangdi'' (, translated as "emperor" or "empress (regnant)" as appropriate), Wu was the only woman in the
history of China
The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the ...
to assume the title ''huangdi''. Her tenure as
de facto ruler of China and official regent of the Tang dynasty (first through her husband and then through her sons, from 665 to 690) was not without precedent in Chinese history, but she broke precedent when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the
Zhou () (interrupting the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
), ruling personally under the name Sacred and Divine Huangdi (), and variations thereof, from 690 to 705.
Wu Zetian and
Empress Dowager Liu of the Song dynasty are said to be the only women in Chinese history to have worn a yellow robe, ordinarily reserved for the emperor's sole use, as a monarch or co-ruler in their own right.
Background and early life
The Wu family clan originated in
Wenshui County
Wenshui County () is a county in the west-central part of Shanxi Province, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Lüliang.
This county was the ancestral home of Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian (624 – 16 December 705 ...
, Bingzhou (an ancient name of the city of
Taiyuan
Taiyuan; Mandarin pronunciation: (Jin Chinese, Taiyuan Jin: /tʰai˦˥ ye˩˩/) is the capital of Shanxi, China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province. It is an industrial base foc ...
,
Shanxi
Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...
). Wu Zetian's birthplace is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains disputed. Some scholars argue that Wu was born in
Wenshui, some that it was
Lizhou
Lizhou District (), known until 2007 as Shizhong District (), is a district of Guangyuan city, Sichuan Province
Sichuan is a Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the ...
() (modern-day
Guangyuan
Guangyuan ( zh, s= , t=廣元 , p=Guǎngyuán , w=Kuang-yüan) is a prefecture-level city in Sichuan Province, China, bordering the provinces of Shaanxi to the northeast and Gansu to the northwest. Guangyuan City is located on the northern edge ...
, Sichuan), while others insist she was born in the imperial capital of
Chang'an
Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
(today known as
Xi'an
Xi'an is the list of capitals in China, capital of the Chinese province of Shaanxi. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong plain, the city is the third-most populous city in Western China after Chongqing and Chengdu, as well as the most populou ...
).
Wu Zetian was born in the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. In the same year, a
total eclipse
An eclipse is an astronomical event which occurs when an astronomical object or spacecraft is temporarily obscured, by passing into the shadow of another body or by having another body pass between it and the viewer. This alignment of three ...
of the sun was visible across China. Her father,
Wu Shiyue, worked in the timber business and the family was relatively well-off.
Her mother was from the powerful Yang family, distant relatives of the imperial family of the
Sui dynasty
The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
. During the final years of
Emperor Yang of Sui
Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), was the second emperor of the Sui dynasty of China.
Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but he was rena ...
,
Li Yuan
Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635), born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude, was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626 CE. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern- ...
, the future Emperor Gaozu of Tang, stayed in the Wu household many times and became close to the Wu family while holding appointments in both Hedong and Taiyuan. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, giving them grain, land, clothing and wealth. Once the Tang dynasty was established, Wu Shihou held a succession of senior ministerial posts, including the governorship of
Yangzhou
Yangzhou is a prefecture-level city in central Jiangsu Province, East China. Sitting on the north bank of the Yangtze, it borders the provincial capital Nanjing to the southwest, Huai'an to the north, Yancheng to the northeast, Taizhou, Jiangsu, ...
, Lizhou, and Jingzhou () (modern-day
Jiangling County
Jiangling () is a county in southern Hubei province, People's Republic of China. Administratively, it is under the jurisdiction of Jingzhou City.
History
The county name derived from the old name of Jingzhou.
Liang Dynasty Prince Xiao Yi (蕭繹 ...
, Hubei).
Wu was encouraged by her parents to read books and pursue her education, an uncommon situation for the women at the time. She read and learned about many topics, such as music, calligraphy, literature, history, politics, and other governmental affairs.
At age 14, she was taken to be an imperial concubine (lesser wife) of
Emperor Taizong of Tang
Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty fo ...
. It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education. She was given the title of ''
cairen'' (), the title for one of the consorts with the 5th rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts.
When she was summoned to the palace, her mother, the Lady Yang, wept bitterly when saying farewell to her, but she responded, "How do you know that it is not my fortune to meet the
Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven, or ''Tianzi'' (), was the sacred monarchial and imperial title of the Chinese sovereign. It originated with the Zhou dynasty and was founded on the political and spiritual doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Since the Qin dynasty ...
?" Lady Yang reportedly then understood her ambitions, and therefore stopped crying.
But Consort Wu did not appear to be much favored by Emperor Taizong, though it appears that she did have sexual relations with him at one point.
[See , for ]Chu Suiliang
Chǔ Suìliáng (596–658), courtesy name Dengshan, formally the Duke of Henan, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, and politician who served as a chancellor during the reigns of the emperors Taizong and Gaozong in the Tang dynasty. He beca ...
's assertion that she had "served" (a euphemism for sexual relations) Emperor Taizong when trying to stop Emperor Gaozong from creating her empress. According to her own account (given in a rebuke of
Chancellor
Chancellor () is a title of various official positions in the governments of many countries. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the (lattice work screens) of a basilica (court hall), which separa ...
Ji Xu
Ji Xu () was a Chinese politician during Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving briefly as chancellor.
Background
It is not known when Ji Xu was born, but it is known that he was from the Zhou capital Luoyang. He was said to be tall, good at hiding h ...
during her reign), she once impressed Taizong with her fortitude:
When Taizong died in 649, his youngest son, Li Zhi, whose mother was the main wife
Wende, succeeded him as
Emperor Gaozong. Li Zhi had had an affair with Wu when Taizong was still alive.
Taizong had 14 sons, including three by his beloved
Empress Zhangsun
Empress Zhangsun (長孫皇后, personal name unknown, presumably Wugou (無垢) (15 March 601 – 28 July 636), formally Empress Wendeshunsheng (文德順聖皇后, literally "the civil, virtuous, serene, and holy empress") or, in short, Empr ...
(601–636), but none with Consort Wu.
Thus, according to the custom by which consorts of deceased emperors who had not produced children were permanently confined to a monastic institution after the emperor's death, Wu was consigned to Ganye Temple () with the expectation that she would serve as a
Buddhist nun
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE. It is the world's fourth ...
there for the remainder of her life. After Taizong's death,
Gaozong met her at the death anniversary of Taizong when he was offering
incense
Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonial reasons. It ...
. At the time,
Consort Xiao and
Empress Wang were fighting for favoredness of Gaozong, and Wang asked Gaozong to bring Wu back into the palace, hoping to divert Gaozong's attention. Gaozong agreed and gave Wu the title Lady of Bright Deportment (). Soon, Gaozong became enamored with Wu, and both Wang and Xiao lost favor.
Rise to power
By early 650, Consort Wu was a concubine of Emperor Gaozong, and she had the title
Zhaoyi
The ranks of imperial consorts have varied over the course of Chinese history but remained important throughout owing to its prominence in the management of the inner court and in imperial succession, which ranked heirs according to the prominen ...
, the highest ranking concubine of the nine concubines in the second rank. Wu progressively gained immeasurable influence over the governance of the empire throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. Over time, she came to control most major decisions made. She was regarded as ruthless in her endeavors to grab power, and was believed by traditional historians to have killed her own children. This was later proven false, as these rumors seem to have surfaced 400 years after her death. This was likely due to the belief in ancient China that a woman wasn't suited to hold the power of the emperor.
Imperial consort (650–655)
Gaozong became emperor at the age of 21. He was not the first choice, as he was inexperienced and frequently incapacitated with a sickness that caused him spells of dizziness.
Gaozong was made heir to the empire only due to the disgrace of his two older brothers.
On or after the anniversary of Emperor Taizong's death, Gaozong went to Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha. When he and Consort Wu saw each other, they both wept. This was seen by Gaozong's wife,
Empress Wang. At that time, Gaozong did not favor Wang. Instead, he favored his concubine
Pure Consort Xiao
Consort Xiao, Pure Consort Xiao or Xiao Shufei (蕭淑妃, personal name unknown) (died November 655), was a concubine of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (Li Zhi). She was initially favored by him and bore him a son and two daughters— Li Sujie and the P ...
. Furthermore, Wang had no children while Xiao had one son (
Li Sujie
Li Sujie (李素節) (646 CE – 691 CE), formally the Prince of Xu (許王), was an imperial prince of the Chinese Tang dynasty. He was the fourth son of Emperor Gaozong, born of his one-time favorite Pure Consort Xiao. After Consort Xiao and E ...
) and two daughters (Princesses Yiyang and Xuancheng).
Wang, seeing that Gaozong was still impressed by Wu's beauty, hoped that the arrival of a new concubine would divert the emperor from Xiao. Therefore, she secretly told Wu to stop shaving her hair and later welcomed her to the palace. (Some modern historians dispute this traditional account. Some think that Wu never left the imperial palace and might have had an affair with Gaozong while Taizong was still alive.)
Wu soon overtook Xiao as Gaozong's favorite. In 652, she gave birth to her first child, a son named
Li Hong
Li Hong ( zh, s=, c=李弘, t=) (652 – 25 May 675), formally Emperor Xiaojing (孝敬皇帝, literally, "the filial and respectful emperor") with the temple name of Yizong (義宗), was a crown prince (not emperor, despite his formal title) of ...
. In 653, she gave birth to another son,
Li Xián. Neither of these sons was in contention to be Gaozong's heir, because Gaozong, at the request of officials influenced by Wang and her uncle (the chancellor
Liu Shi), had designated his eldest son
Li Zhong
Li Zhong (李忠) (643 – January 6, 665Volume 201 of ''Zizhi Tongjian'' recorded that Li died on the ''wuzi'' day in the 12th month of the 1st year of the Linde era of Tang Gaozong's reign. This date corresponds to 6 Jan 665 on the Gregorian cal ...
as his heir. Li Zhong's mother, Consort Liu, was of lowly birth. Wang did this in order to receive Liu's gratitude.
By 654, both Wang and Xiao had lost favor with Gaozong, and these two former romantic rivals joined forces against Wu, but to no avail. For example, as a sign of his love for Wu, Gaozong conferred posthumous honors on her father,
Wu Shiyue. In the same year, Wu gave birth to a daughter. But her daughter died shortly after birth, with evidence suggesting deliberate
strangulation
Strangling or strangulation is compression of the neck that may lead to unconsciousness or death by causing an increasingly hypoxic state in the brain by restricting the flow of oxygen through the trachea. Fatal strangulation typically occurs ...
. The evidence include allegations made by Wu herself, and she accused Wang of murder.
Wang was accused of having been seen near the child's room, with corroborating testimony by alleged eyewitnesses. Gaozong was led to believe that Wang, motivated by jealousy, had most likely killed the child. Wang lacked an alibi and was unable to clear her name.
Scientifically credible
forensic pathology
Forensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse. A post mortem examination is performed by a medical examiner or forensic pathologist, usually during the investigation of criminal law cases ...
information about the death of Wu's daughter does not exist, and scholars lack concrete evidence about her death. However, scholars have many theories and speculations. Because traditional folklore tends to portray Wu as a power-hungry woman unconcerned about whom she hurt or what she did, the most popular theory is that Wu killed her own child in order to accuse Wang. Other schools of thought argue that Wang indeed killed the child out of jealousy and hatred of Wu. The third argument is that the child died of
asphyxiation
Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body which arises from abnormal breathing. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which affects all the tissues and organs, some more rapidly than others. There are ...
or
crib death
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), sometimes known as cot death or crib death, is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and ...
. The ventilation systems of the time were nonexistent or of poor quality, and the lack of ventilation combined with using coal as a heating method could have led to
carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide poisoning typically occurs from breathing in carbon monoxide (CO) at excessive levels. Symptoms are often described as " flu-like" and commonly include headache, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, chest pain, and confusion. Large ...
. In any case, Wu blamed Wang for the girl's death, and as a result, tried to remove Wang from her position.
Because of the child's death, an angry Gaozong also wanted to depose Wang and replace her with Wu. But first he needed to make sure that he had the support of the government chancellors. So Gaozong met with his uncle
Zhangsun Wuji
Zhangsun Wuji (; died 659), courtesy name Fuji (), formally the Duke of Zhao, was a Chinese politician who served as a chancellor in the early Tang dynasty. He was Empress Zhangsun's brother, which made him a brother-in-law of Emperor Taizong ( ...
, the head chancellor. During the meeting, Gaozong repeatedly brought up Wang's childlessness. Childlessness was a sufficient excuse to depose Wang, but Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation. Subsequent visits made by Wu's mother, Lady Yang, and an official allied with Wu,
Xu Jingzong
Xu Jingzong (592 – September 20, 672), courtesy name Yanzu, posthumously known as Duke Gong of Gaoyang, was a Chinese cartographer, historian, and politician who served as a chancellor in the Tang dynasty. Allied with Emperor Gaozong's power ...
, to seek support from Zhangsun were met with disappointment.
In the summer of 655, Wu accused Wang and her mother, Lady Liu, of using witchcraft. In response, Gaozong barred Liu from the palace and demoted Wang's uncle, Liu Shi.
Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Wu, including
Li Yifu
Li Yifu (; 614–666) was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician who served as a chancellor of the Tang dynasty, during the reign of the Emperor Gaozong. He became particularly powerful because of his support for Emperor Gaozong's second wife ...
, Xu, Cui Yixuan (), and Yuan Gongyu (). That autumn, Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun,
Li Ji,
Yu Zhining, and
Chu Suiliang
Chǔ Suìliáng (596–658), courtesy name Dengshan, formally the Duke of Henan, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, and politician who served as a chancellor during the reigns of the emperors Taizong and Gaozong in the Tang dynasty. He beca ...
to the palace. Chu had deduced that the summons were about changing the empress. Li Ji claimed illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Chancellors
Han Yuan Han Yuan (; 606 – 659),Accord to Han Yuan's biographies in ''Old Book of Tang'' and ''New Book of Tang'', he was 54 (by East Asian reckoning) when he died in the 4th year of the Xianqing era of Tang Gaozong's reign (659). By calculation, his birth ...
and
Lai Ji Lai Ji (; 610–662) was a Chinese military general and politician during the Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor of the Tang dynasty, chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang, Emperor Gaozong. He later offended Emperor Gaozong by op ...
also opposed the move. When Gaozong asked Li Ji again he responded, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?"
Gaozong therefore resolved to demote Chu to commandant at
Tan Prefecture (roughly modern
Changsha
Changsha is the capital of Hunan, China. It is the 15th most populous city in China with a population of 10,513,100, the Central China#Cities with urban area over one million in population, third-most populous city in Central China, and the ...
, Hunan),
and then deposed both Wang and Xiao. He placed them under arrest and made Wu empress. Later that year, Gaozong showed signs of considering their release. Because of this, Wang and Xiao were killed on Empress Wu's orders. After their deaths, they often haunted Wu's dreams over the years.
Wu came to believe their spirits were after her. For this reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace (大明宮), into Penglai Palace (蓬萊宮). When Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall (含元殿), was completed in 663, Gaozong and Wu moved there. It was later renamed Hanyuan Palace, yet Empress Wang and Consort Xiao still continued to appear in her dreams. Therefore, for the rest of Gaozong's reign, he and Wu often took up residence at the eastern capital
Luoyang
Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
and only infrequently spent time in
Chang'an
Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
.
Empress consort
Involvement in politics (655–660)
In 655, Wu became Tang Gaozong's new empress consort (, ''húanghòu''). In 656, on the advice of Xu Jingzong, Emperor Gaozong deposed Consort Liu's son Li Zhong from being his heir apparent. He changed Li Zhong's status to Prince of Liang and designated Empress Wu's son, Li Hong as the title of Prince of Dai and crown prince (that is, Heir Apparent).
In 657, Empress Wu and her allies began reprisals against officials who had opposed her ascension. She first had Xu and Li Yifu, who were by now chancellors, falsely accuse Han Yuan and Lai Ji of being complicit with Chu Suiliang in planning treason. The three of them, along with Liu Shi, were demoted to being prefects of remote prefectures, with provisions that they would never be allowed to return to Chang'an. In 659, she had Xu accuse Zhangsun Wuji of plotting treason with the low-level officials Wei Jifang () and Li Chao (). Zhangsun was exiled and, later in the year, was forced to commit suicide in exile. Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of his titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu () and Chu Yanchong () were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before the execution order reached his location.
It was said that after this time, no official dared to criticize the emperor. In 660, Li Zhong, Gaozong's first-born son (to consort Liu) was targeted. Li Zhong had feared that he would be next and had sought out advice of fortune tellers. Wu had him exiled and placed under house arrest.
Ruling with Emperor Gaozong (660–683)
In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had the opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast.
Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related. He began to have Empress Wu make rulings on daily petitions by officials. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's.
By 664, Wu was said to be interfering so much in the empire's governance that she was angering Gaozong with her controlling behavior. Furthermore, she had engaged the
Taoist
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
sorcerer Guo Xingzhen () in using witchcraft—an act prohibited by regulations, which led to Empress Wang's downfall—and the
eunuch
A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
Wang Fusheng () reported this to Gaozong, angering him further. He consulted the chancellor
Shangguan Yi
Shangguan Yi (; 608 – 4 January 665), courtesy name Youshao (), formally Duke of Chu (), was a Chinese poet and politician. He was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty, serving as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. In 664 ...
, who suggested that he depose Wu. He had Shangguan draft an edict. But as Shangguan was doing so, Wu received news of what was happening. She went to the emperor to plead her case just as he was holding the edict that Shangguan had drafted. Gaozong could not bear to depose her and blamed the episode on Shangguan. As both Shangguan and Wang had served on Li Zhong's staff, Wu had Xu falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of planning treason. Shangguan, Wang, and Shangguan's son Shangguan Tingzhi () were executed, while Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide.
Shangguan Tingzhi's daughter
Shangguan Wan'er
Shangguan Wan'er (664 – 21 July 710) was a Chinese politician, poet, and imperial consort of the Wu Zhou and Tang dynasties. Described as a "female prime minister," Shangguan rose from modest origins as a palace servant to become secretary ...
, then an infant, and her mother, Lady Zheng, became slaves in the inner palace. After Shangguan Wan'er grew up, she became Empress Wu's trusted secretary.
She and Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints" (, ''Er Sheng'') both inside the palace and in the empire.
The
Later Jin historian
Liu Xu
Liu Xu (; 888–947),'' History of the Five Dynasties'', vol. 89. courtesy name Yaoyuan (), formally the Duke of Qiao (), was a Chinese historian and politician of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period states Later Tang and Later J ...
, in
Old Book of Tang
The ''Old Book of Tang'', or simply the ''Book of Tang'', is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdo ...
, commented:
Meanwhile, on Empress Wu's account, her mother Lady Yang had been made the Lady of Rong, and her older sister, now widowed, the
Lady of Han. Her half-brothers Wu Yuanqing and Wu Yuanshuang and cousins Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun, despite the poor relationships that they had with Lady Yang, were promoted. But at a feast that Lady Yang held for them, Wu Weiliang offended Lady Yang by stating that they did not find it honorable for them to be promoted on account of Empress Wu. Empress Wu, therefore, requested to have them demoted to remote prefectures—outwardly to show modesty, but in reality to avenge the offense to her mother. Wu Yuanqing and Wu Yuanshuang died in effective exile. Meanwhile, in or before 666, Lady of Han died as well. After Lady of Han's death, Emperor Gaozong made her daughter the
Lady of Wei and considered keeping her in the palace—possibly as a concubine. He did not immediately do so, as he feared that Empress Wu would be displeased. It was said that Empress Wu heard of this and was nevertheless displeased. She had her niece poisoned, by placing poison in food offerings that Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun had made and then blaming them for the death of the Lady of Wei. Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun were executed.
[For Wu Shihuo's career and family, see generally '']Old Book of Tang
The ''Old Book of Tang'', or simply the ''Book of Tang'', is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdo ...
'', vol. 58 and ''New Book of Tang'', vol. 206
In 670, Wu's mother, Lady Yang, died, and by Gaozong's and Wu's orders, all of the imperial officials and their wives attended her wake and mourned her. Later that year, with the realm suffering from a major drought, Wu offered to be deposed, which Gaozong rejected. At her request, he further posthumously honored Wu Shiyue (who had previously been posthumously honored as the Duke of Zhou) and Lady Yang by giving them the titles of the Prince and Princess of Taiyuan.
Meanwhile, the son of Empress Wu's older sister the Lady of Han, Helan Minzhi (), had been given the surname Wu and allowed to inherit the title of Duke of Zhou. But as it was becoming clear to Empress Wu that he suspected her of murdering his sister, the Lady of Wei, Wu began to take precautions against him. (Helan was also said to have had an
incest
Incest ( ) is sexual intercourse, sex between kinship, close relatives, for example a brother, sister, or parent. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by lineag ...
uous relationship with his grandmother Lady Yang.) In 671, Helan was accused of disobeying mourning regulations during the period of mourning for Lady Yang and raping the daughter of the official Yang Sijian (), whom Gaozong and Wu had previously selected to be the wife and crown princess for Li Hong. On Wu's orders, Helan was exiled and either was executed in exile or committed suicide. In 673, Wu provided 20,000 cash for a gigantic statue of Maitreya at
Longmen Grottoes
The Longmen Grottoes () or Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province, ...
. In 674, she had Wu Yuanshuang's son
Wu Chengsi
Wu Chengsi (; 649-July 22, 698), courtesy name Fengxian, formally Prince Xuan of Wei (魏宣王), was a nephew of the Chinese sovereign Wu Zetian and an imperial prince of the Zhou dynasty (690–705), Wu Zhou dynasty. He participated in her planni ...
recalled from exile to inherit the title of Duke of Zhou.

In 675, as Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened, he considered having Empress Wu formally rule as
regent
In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
. The chancellor
Hao Chujun
Hao Chujun (; 607–681), formally Duke of Zengshan (甑山公), was an official and general of the Chinese Tang dynasty, serving as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. He was known for his honesty and willingness to advise Emperor Gao ...
and the official
Li Yiyan
Li Yiyan (李義琰) (died 688) was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong.
Background
It is not known when Li Yiyan was born. His family was from Wei Prefecture (魏州, part of mo ...
both opposed this, and he did not formally make her regent, and did not formally bestow she with such authorities. But the Empress Wu's as so powerful that she even surpassed Emperor Gaozong and he was afraid of Wu because of her high intelligence and skills in manipulating officials; thus, until the end of his reign, she has decision-making power on most events in the governmental and border matters, and appoints civil ministers and military generals.
Also in 675, a number of people fell victim to Empress Wu's ire. She had been displeased at the favor that Emperor Gaozong had shown his aunt, Princess Changle. Changle was married to General Zhao Gui () and had a daughter who became the wife and princess consort of Wu's third son, Li Xiǎn, the Prince of Zhou. Princess Zhao was accused of unspecified crimes and placed under arrest, eventually starving to death. Zhao Gui and Changle were exiled. Meanwhile, later that month, Li Hong, the Crown Prince—who urged Wu not to exercise so much influence and authority on Gaozong's governance and offended her by requesting that his half-sisters, Consort Xiao's daughters, Princess Yiyang and Xuancheng (under house arrest) be allowed to marry—died suddenly. Traditional historians generally believed that Wu poisoned Li Hong to death. At her request, Li Xián, then carrying the title of Prince of Yong, was created crown prince.
Meanwhile, Consort Xiao's son Li Sujie and another son of Gaozong's,
Li Shangjin, were repeatedly accused of crimes by Wu and were subsequently demoted.
Soon, Empress Wu's relationship with Li Xián also deteriorated because Li Xián had become unsettled after hearing rumors that he was not born to Empress Wu—but to her sister, the Lady of Han. When Empress Wu heard of his fearfulness, she became angry with him. In 678, contemporary poet
Luo Binwang
Luo Binwang (, ca. 619–684?), courtesy name Guanguang (觀光/观光), was a List of Chinese language poets, Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. His family was from Wuzhou, modern Yiwu, Zhejiang, but he was raised in Shandong. Luo is grouped wit ...
criticizes Empress Wu's involvement in governmental affairs: "She whispered slander from behind her sleeves, and swayed emperor with vixen flirting." Luo Binwang remarks angered Empress Wu and he dismissed and imprisoned.
Furthermore, the sorcerer Ming Chongyan (), whom both she and Emperor Gaozong respected, had stated that Li Xián was unsuitable to inherit the throne and was assassinated in 679. The assassins were not caught—causing Wu to suspect that Li Xián was behind the assassination. In 680, Li Xián was accused of crimes and during an investigation by the officials
Xue Yuanchao
Xue Yuanchao (; 622–683), formal name Xue Zhen (薛振) but went by the courtesy name of Yuanchao, formally Baron of Fenyin (汾陰男), was a Chinese politician of the Chinese Tang dynasty who served as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor ...
,
Pei Yan Pei Yan (裴炎) (died November 30, 684), courtesy name Zilong (子隆), was a Chinese politician during the Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, as well as the regency of his wife Empress Wu (later known as ...
, and
Gao Zhizhou, a large number of weaponry was found in Li Xián's palace. Empress Wu formally accused Li Xián of treason and the assassination of Ming. Emperor Gaozong wanted to forgive Li Xián for treason, but Empress Wu refused and he surrendered at her insistence. Li Xián was deposed and exiled, and at her request, he was placed under house arrest as a normal person.
At Empress Wu's request, after the exile of Li Xián, his younger brother Li Xiǎn
imilar-sounding name but different Chinese characters(now renamed Li Zhe) was named crown prince.
In 681, Princess Taiping was married to Xue Shao (), the son of Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Chengyang, in a grand ceremony. Empress Wu, initially unimpressed with the lineages of Xue Shao's brothers' wives, wanted to order his brothers to divorce their wives—stopping only after it was pointed out to her that Lady Xiao, the wife of Xue Shao's older brother Xue Yi (), was a grandniece of the deceased chancellor
Xiao Yu
Xiao Yu (575 – 19 July 648), courtesy name Shiwen, posthumously known as Duke Zhenbian of Song, was an imperial prince of the Western Liang dynasty who later became an official under the Sui and Tang dynasties. He served as a chancellor dur ...
. The official Feng Yuanchang was appointed by Gaozong, and he trusted him very much. In 682, Feng also lamented Empress Wu's power and involvement in the administration of the empire and told the emperor: "The queen's authority is very strong, should it be reduced?" Gaozong opposed it, and he was afraid of her, and there was nothing he could do. Upon learning of Feng's ineffective advice to the emperor, Wu became very angry with Feng, and accused him of corruption and degraded him.
In late 683, Gaozong died at Luoyang. Li Zhe took the throne as
Emperor Zhongzong, but Wu retained the real authority as
empress dowager
Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother; ) is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a monarch, especially in regards to Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese monarchs in the Chines ...
and regent.
Empress dowager
Plenipotentiary regent for Emperor Zhongzong
Upon the death of her husband Emperor Gaozong, Wu became empress dowager (, ''húangtàihòu'') and then regent and she automatically gained full power over the empire. She had the power to remove and install emperors. Just as before, government decisions were made by her. Wu had already poisoned the crown prince Li Hong and had enough other princes exiled that her third son,
Li Zhe, was made heir apparent. Furthermore, Gaozong's will included provisions that Li Zhe should ascend immediately to the imperial throne, he should look to Empress Wu in regards to any important matter, either military or civil, and Empress Wu should claim the senior authority in the Empire for herself.
In the second month of 684, Li Zhe ascended to the imperial throne, known as his temple name Zhongzong, for a short six weeks.
The new emperor was married to a woman of the Wei family. Because Zhongzong was as weak and incompetent as his father, the new Empress sought to place herself in the same position of great authority that Empress Wu had enjoyed.
Immediately, Emperor Zhongzong showed signs of disobeying Empress Dowager Wu. Emperor Zhongzong was under the thumb of his wife, Empress Wei. Under her influence, the Emperor, appointed his father-in-law as prime minister. He also tried to make his father-in-law ''Shizhong'' (, the head of the examination bureau of government, , ''Menxia Sheng'', and a post considered one for a chancellor) and gave a mid-level office to his
wet nurse
A wet nurse is a woman who breastfeeding, breastfeeds and cares for another's child. Wet nurses are employed if the mother dies, if she is unable to nurse the child herself sufficiently or chooses not to do so. Wet-nursed children may be known a ...
's son—despite stern opposition by the chancellor Pei Yan, at one point remarking to Pei:
Pei reported this to Empress Dowager Wu, and she, after planning with Pei, Liu Yizhi, and the generals Cheng Wuting () and Zhang Qianxu (), deposed Emperor Zhongzong and replaced him with her youngest son,
Li Dan, the Prince of Yu (as Emperor Ruizong). Wu had Zhongzong's father-in-law, Wei Xuanzhen (), brought up on charges of treason. Wei Xuanzhen was sent into seclusion. Zhongzong was reduced to the title of Prince of Luling and exiled. Wu also sent General Qiu Shenji () to Li Xián's place in exile and forced Li Xián to commit suicide.
Plenipotentiary regent for Emperor Ruizong
Wu was the absolute ruler in both substance and appearance during the reign of her youngest son, Emperor Ruizong. She did not follow the customary pretense of hiding behind a screen or curtain and, in whispers, issued commands for the nominal ruler to formally announce. Her reign was fully recognized. Ruizong never moved into the imperial quarters, or appeared at imperial function, and remained a virtual prisoner in the inner quarters. He held the title of emperor, but Wu firmly controlled the imperial court, and officials were not allowed to meet with Ruizong, nor was he allowed to rule on matters of state. It was to Wu that officials reported, with Ruizong not even nominally approving official actions. Soon after Ruizong took the throne, Wu carried out a major renaming of governmental offices and banners. Wu elevated Luoyang's status, making it a coequal capital. At her nephew Wu Chengsi's suggestion, she expanded the shrine of the Wu ancestors and gave them greater posthumous honors, and made Wu's ancestral shrine the size of the emperor's ancestral shrine.
Soon thereafter, Li Ji's grandson
Li Jingye
Li Jingye (; 636 – December 29, 684), also known as Xu Jingye (), was a Chinese general and politician who was a grandson of the Tang dynasty general Li Shiji who, after Emperor Gaozong's powerful wife Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian) ...
, the Duke of Ying, who had been disaffected by his own exile, started a rebellion at Yang Prefecture (, roughly modern Yangzhou,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
). The rebellion initially drew popular support in the region, but Li Jingye progressed slowly in his attack and did not take advantage of that support. Meanwhile, Pei suggested to Empress Dowager Wu that she return imperial authority to the Emperor, arguing that doing so would cause the rebellion to collapse on its own. This offended Wu, and she accused him of being complicit with Li Jingye and had him executed; she also demoted, exiled, and killed a number of officials who, when Pei was arrested, tried to speak on his behalf. She sent General Li Xiaoyi () to attack Li Jingye, and while Li Xiaoyi was initially unsuccessful, he pushed on at the urging of his assistant
Wei Yuanzhong
Wei Yuanzhong (魏元忠) (630s - late 707?), né Wei Zhenzai (魏真宰), formally Duke Zhen of Qi (齊貞公), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving as chancellor during the reigns of Wu Zetian and h ...
and eventually crushed Li Jingye's forces. Li Jingye fled and was killed in flight.
By 685, Empress Dowager Wu was having an affair with the
Buddhist monk Huaiyi, and over the next few years, Huaiyi received progressively greater honors.
In 686, Wu offered to return imperial authorities to Emperor Ruizong, but Ruizong, knowing that she did not truly intend to do so, declined, and she continued to exercise imperial authority. Meanwhile, she installed copper mailboxes outside the imperial government buildings to encourage the people of the realm to report secretly on others, as she suspected many officials of opposing her. Wu personally read all the reports of betrayal. Secret police officials, including
Suo Yuanli,
Zhou Xing, and
Lai Junchen
Lai Junchen ( Chinese: 來俊臣) (died 26 June 697) was a Chinese politician and writer. He was a well-known secret police official during the Chinese Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties, whose ability to interrogate and falsely implicate officials of cr ...
, began to rise in power and carry out systematic false accusations, torture, and executions.
In 688, Empress Dowager Wu was set to make sacrifices to the deity of the
Luo River (, flowing through the Henan province city of
Luoyang
Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
, then the "Eastern Capital"). She summoned senior members of Tang's Li imperial clan to Luoyang. Worried that she planned to slaughter them and secure the throne for herself, the imperial princes plotted to resist her. But before a rebellion could be comprehensively planned, Li Zhen and his son
Li Chong, the Prince of Langye rose first, at their respective posts as prefects of Yu Prefecture (, roughly modern
Zhumadian
Zhumadian ( zh, s= , t= , p=Zhùmǎdiàn; Postal romanization, postal: Chumatien) is a prefecture-level city in southern Henan province of China, province, China. It borders Xinyang to the south, Nanyang, Henan, Nanyang to the west, Pingdingshan to ...
,
Henan
Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
) and Bo Prefecture (, roughly modern
Liaocheng
Liaocheng ( zh, s=, p=Liáochéng), is a prefecture-level city in western Shandong province, China. It borders the provincial capital of Jinan to the southeast, Dezhou to the northeast, Tai'an to the south, and the provinces of Hebei and Henan t ...
,
Shandong
Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
). The other princes were not yet ready, and did not rise, and forces sent by Empress Dowager Wu and the local forces crushed Li Chong and Li Zhen's forces quickly. Wu took this opportunity to arrest Emperor Gaozong's granduncles Li Yuanjia () the Prince of Han, Li Lingkui () the Prince of Lu, and Princess Changle, as well as many other members of the Li clan, and forced them to commit suicide. Even Princess Taiping's husband Xue Shao was implicated and starved to death. In the subsequent years, there continued to be many politically motivated massacres of officials and Li clan members.
In 690, Wu took the final step to become the
empress regnant
A queen regnant (: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank, title and position to a king. She reigns '' suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a kingdom; as opposed to a queen consort, who is married to a reigni ...
of the newly proclaimed
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
, and the title ''Huangdi''. Traditional Chinese
order of succession
An order, line or right of succession is the line of individuals necessitated to hold a high office when it becomes vacated, such as head of state or an honour such as a title of nobility.[Salic law
The Salic law ( or ; ), also called the was the ancient Frankish Civil law (legal system), civil law code compiled around AD 500 by Clovis I, Clovis, the first Frankish King. The name may refer to the Salii, or "Salian Franks", but this is deba ...]
in Europe) did not allow a woman to ascend the throne, but Wu was determined to quash the opposition and the use of the secret police continued after she took the throne. While her organization of the civil service system was criticized for its laxity of the promotion of officials, Wu was still considered capable of evaluating the officials' performance once they were in office. The
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
historian
Sima Guang
Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', a monumental work of history.
B ...
, in his ''
Zizhi Tongjian
The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...
'', writes:
As empress regnant
In 690, Wu had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her and established the Zhou dynasty, with herself as the imperial ruler (''Huangdi'').
The early part of her reign was characterized by secret police terror, which moderated as the years went by. On the other hand, she was recognized as a capable and attentive ruler even by traditional historians who despised her, and her ability to select capable men to serve as officials was admired for the rest of the Tang dynasty as well as in subsequent dynasties.
Wu Zetian's reign was a pivotal moment for the imperial examination system. The reason for this was because up until that point, the Tang rulers had all been male members of the Li family. Wu Zetian, who officially took the title of emperor in 690, was a woman outside the Li family who needed an alternative base of power. Reform of the imperial examinations featured prominently in her plan to create a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins. Both the palace and military examinations were created under Wu Zetian which were based solely on merit.
Early reign (690–696)
Shortly after Wu took the throne in her newly established dynasty, she elevated the status of Buddhism above that of
Taoism
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
. She officially sanctioned Buddhism by building temples named Dayun Temple () in each prefecture belonging to the capital regions of the two capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, and created nine senior monks as dukes. She enshrined seven generations of Wu ancestors at the imperial ancestral temple, while continuing to offer sacrifices to the Tang emperors Gaozu, Taizong, and Gaozong.
Wu faced the issue of succession. At the time she took the throne, she created Li Dan, the former Emperor Ruizong, crown prince, and bestowed the name Wu on him.
The official
Zhang Jiafu convinced the commoner Wang Qingzhi () to start a petition drive to make her nephew Wu Chengsi crown prince, arguing that an emperor named Wu should pass the throne to a member of the Wu clan. Wu Zetian was tempted to do so, and when the chancellors
Cen Changqian
Cen Changqian (; died November 7, 691), briefly known as Wu Changqian (武長倩) during the reign of Wu Zetian, formally the Duke of Deng (鄧公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties of China, serv ...
and
Ge Fuyuan
Ge Fuyuan (格輔元; died November 7, 691) was a Chinese politician of the Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving briefly as a chancellor during Wu Zetian's reign.
It is not known when Ge Fuyuan was born, but it is known that he was f ...
opposed sternly, they, along with fellow chancellor
Ouyang Tong
Ouyang Tong (歐陽通) (died November 7, 691), formally the Viscount of Bohai (渤海子), was a Chinese calligrapher and politician of the Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties of China, serving briefly as chancellor during Wu Zetian's reign.
Background ...
, were executed. She ultimately declined Wang's request to make Wu Chengsi crown prince, but for a time allowed Wang to freely enter the palace to see her.
On one occasion, when Wang angered her by coming to the palace too much, she asked the official
Li Zhaode Li Zhaode (; died 28 April 697) was a Chinese politician in Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, who at point served as chancellor. He was known for his abilities and strong will, which eventually led to a conflict with Wu Zetian's secret police official Lai ...
to batter Wang as punishment. Li Zhaode exploited the opportunity to batter Wang to death, and his group of petitioners scattered. Li Zhaode then persuaded Wu Zetian to keep Li Dan as crown prince—pointing out that a son was closer in relations than a nephew, and that if Wu Chengsi became emperor, Gaozong would never again be worshiped. Wu Zetian agreed, and for some time did not reconsider the matter.
At Li Zhaode's warning that Wu Chengsi was becoming too powerful, Wu Zetian stripped Wu Chengsi of his chancellor authority and bestowed on him largely honorific titles without authority.
Meanwhile, the secret police officials' power continued to increase, until they appeared to be curbed, starting in about 692, when Lai Junchen was foiled in his attempt to have the chancellors
Ren Zhigu
Ren Zhigu (任知古) was a Chinese politician of Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty, serving briefly as chancellor.
Despite Ren's high status, little is firmly established about his background or career except for the time that he served as chancellor—as ...
,
Di Renjie
Di Renjie (630 – November 11, 700), courtesy name Huaiying (懷英), posthumous name Duke Wenhui of Liang (梁文惠公), was a Chinese politician of the Tang dynasty, Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties, twice serving as Chancellor of the Tang dynas ...
,
Pei Xingben Pei Xingben (裴行本) was a Chinese politician of Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving briefly as chancellor.
Despite Pei's high status, little is firmly established about his background or career except for the time that he served as chancellor—a ...
, and other officials Cui Xuanli (), Lu Xian (), Wei Yuanzhong, and Li Sizhen () executed. Di, under arrest, had hidden a secret petition inside a change of clothes and had it submitted by his son Di Guangyuan (). The seven were exiled. After this incident, particularly at the urging of Li Zhaode,
Zhu Jingze, and Zhou Ju (), the waves of politically motivated massacres decreased, although they did not end entirely.
Wu Zetian utilized the imperial examination system to find talented poor people or people without backgrounds to stabilize her regime.
Also in 692, Wu Zetian commissioned the general
Wang Xiaojie
Wang Xiaojie (王孝傑) (died February 8, 697), formally the Duke of Geng (耿國公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving in campaigns against Tibet, Eastern Turks, and ...
to attack the
Tibetan Empire
The Tibetan Empire (,) was an empire centered on the Tibetan Plateau, formed as a result of expansion under the Yarlung dynasty heralded by its 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, in the 7th century. It expanded further under the 38th king, Trisong De ...
. Wang recaptured the four garrisons of the
Western Regions
The Western Regions or Xiyu (Hsi-yü; ) was a historical name specified in Ancient Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD that referred to the regions west of the Yumen Pass, most often the Tarim Basin in prese ...
that had fallen to the Tibetan Empire in 670 –
Kucha
Kucha or Kuche (also: ''Kuçar'', ''Kuchar''; , Кучар; zh, t= 龜茲, p=Qiūcí, zh, t= 庫車, p=Kùchē; ) was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the northern edge of what is now the Taklam ...
,
Yutian,
Kashgar
Kashgar () or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is a city in the Tarim Basin region of southern Xinjiang, China. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, located near the country's border with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. For over 2,000 years, Kashgar ...
, and
Suyab
Suyab (; Middle Chinese: /suʌiH jiᴇp̚/), also known as ''Ordukent'' (modern-day ''Ak-Beshim''), was an ancient Silk Road city located some 50 km east from Bishkek, and 8 km west southwest from Tokmok, in the Chu river valley, pres ...
.
In 693, after Wu's trusted
lady-in-waiting
A lady-in-waiting (alternatively written lady in waiting) or court lady is a female personal assistant at a Royal court, court, attending on a royal woman or a high-ranking nobility, noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady-in-waiting was o ...
Wei Tuan'er (), who hated Li Dan because he rejected her advances, falsely accused Li Dan's wife
Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou of using witchcraft, Wu had Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou killed. Li Dan, fearful that he was next, did not dare speak of them. When Wei planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, someone informed on her, and she was executed. Wu had Li Dan's sons demoted in their princely titles. When the officials Pei Feigong () and Fan Yunxian () were accused of secretly meeting Li Dan, she executed Pei and Fan and further barred officials from meeting Li Dan.
There were then accusations that Li Dan was plotting treason. Under Wu's direction, Lai launched an investigation. He arrested Li Dan's servants and tortured them. The torture was such that many of them were ready to falsely implicate themselves and Li Dan. One of Li Dan's servants,
An Jincang, proclaimed Li Dan's innocence and cut his own belly open to swear to that fact. When Wu heard what An did, she had doctors attend to An and barely saved his life, and then ordered Lai to end the investigation, saving Li Dan.
In 694, Li Zhaode, who had become powerful after Wu Chengsi's removal, was thought to be too powerful, and Wu Zetian removed him.
Also around this time, she became highly impressed with a group of mystic individuals—the hermit
Wei Shifang (on whom she bestowed a chancellor title briefly), who claimed to be more than 350 years old; an old
Buddhist nun
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE. It is the world's fourth ...
who claimed to be a
Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),*
*
*
was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
and capable of predicting the future; and a non-
Han man who claimed to be 500 years old. During this time, Wu briefly claimed to be and adopted the cult imagery of
Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
in order to build popular support for her reign.
In 695, after the imperial meeting hall () and the Heavenly Hall () were burned by Huaiyi, who was jealous at Wu's taking another lover, the imperial physician Shen Nanqiu (), Wu became angry at these mystics for failing to predict the fire. The old nun and her students were arrested and made into slaves. Wei committed suicide. The old non-Han man fled. Wu put Huaiyi to death. After this incident, she appeared to pay less attention to mysticism and became even more dedicated than before to the affairs of state.
Middle reign (696–701)

Wu's administration soon faced various troubles on the western and northern borders. In spring 696 she sent an army commanded by Wang Xiaojie and
Lou Shide
Lou Shide (; 630–699), courtesy name
Zongren (宗仁), formally Viscount Zhen of Qiao (譙貞子), was a Chinese military general and politician of the History of China, Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, twice serving as cha ...
against the Tibetan Empire, which was soundly defeated by Tibetan generals, the brothers
Gar Trinring Tsendro
Gar Trinring Tsendro (; ? – 699), also known as Lon Trinling (), was a famous general of the Tibetan Empire. He was the second son of minister Gar Tongtsen Yülsung. In Chinese records, his name was given as Lùn Qīnlíng () or Qǐzhèng ...
() and
Gar Tsenba Gar Tsenba (, –?), also known as Gar Trintsan Tsangtong (), was a general of the Tibetan Empire. He was the third son of minister Gar Tongtsen Yülsung. In Chinese records, his name was given as Lùn Zànpó () or Zànpó ().
He was sent to ...
(). As a result, she demoted Wang to commoner rank and Lou to a low-level prefectural official, though she eventually restored both to general positions.
In April of the same year, Wu recast the
Nine Tripod Cauldrons
The Nine Tripod Cauldrons () were a collection of ding (vessel), ding in ancient China that were viewed as symbols of the authority given to the ruler by the Mandate of Heaven. According to the legend, they were cast by Yu the Great of the Xia dyn ...
, the symbol of ultimate power in ancient China, to reinforce her authority.
A much more serious threat arose in summer 696. The
Khitan chieftains
Li Jinzhong
Li Jinzhong () (died September 23, 696), titled Wushang Khan (無上可汗, literally "the khan that had no superior"), was a khan of the Khitans who, along with his brother-in-law Sun Wanrong
Sun Wanrong () (died 697) was a khan of the Khitans. ...
and
Sun Wanrong
Sun Wanrong () (died 697) was a khan of the Khitans. Along with his brother-in-law Li Jinzhong, he rose against Wu Zhou hegemony in 696, and, with Li Jinzhong as khan, they further invaded Wu Zhou territory. After Li Jinzhong's death later in 696, ...
, brothers-in-law, angry over the mistreatment of the Khitan people by the Zhou official Zhao Wenhui (), the prefect of Ying Prefecture (, roughly
Zhaoyang County,
Liaoning
)
, image_skyline =
, image_alt =
, image_caption = Clockwise: Mukden Palace in Shenyang, Xinghai Square in Dalian, Dalian coast, Yalu River at Dandong
, image_map = Liaoning in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, ...
), rebelled, with Li assuming the title of Wushang Khan (). Armies that Wu sent to suppress Li and Sun's rebellion were defeated by Khitan forces, which attacked Zhou proper. Meanwhile,
Qapaghan Qaghan
Qapaghan or Qapghan Qaghan (, meaning "the conqueror", , Xiao'erjing: ٿِيًا شًا, Dungan: Чяншан, , also called Bögü Qaghan () in Bain Tsokto inscriptions) was the second khagan of the Second Turkic Khaganate during Wu Zetian's ...
of the
Second Turkic Khaganate
The Second Turkic Khaganate was a khaganate in Central and Eastern Asia founded by the Ashina clan of the Göktürks that lasted between 682–744. It was preceded by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (552–630) and the early Tang dynasty period ( ...
offered to submit, while also launching attacks against Zhou and Khitan. The attacks included one against the Khitan base of operations during the winter of 696, shortly after Li's death, which resulted in the capturing of Li's and Sun's families and temporarily halted Khitan operations against Zhou.
Sun, after taking over as khan and reorganizing Khitan forces, again attacked Zhou territory and had many victories over Zhou forces, including a battle during which Wang Shijie was killed.
Wu tried to allay the situation by making peace with Ashina Mochuo on fairly costly terms—the return of Tujue people who had previously submitted to Zhou and providing Mochuo with seeds, silk, tools, and iron. In summer 697, Mochuo launched another attack on Khitan's base of operations, and this time, after his attack, Khitan forces collapsed and Sun was killed in flight, ending the Khitan threat.
Meanwhile, also in 697, Lai Junchen, who had at one point lost power but then returned to power, falsely accused Li Zhaode (who had been pardoned) of crimes, and then planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, Li Zhe, the Wu clan princes, and Princess Taiping of treason. The Wu clan princes and Princess Taiping acted first against him, accusing him of crimes, and he and Li Zhaode were executed together. After Lai's death, the secret police's reign largely ended. Gradually, many of the victims of Lai and the other secret police officials were exonerated posthumously.
Meanwhile, around this time, Wu began relationships with two new lovers—the brothers
Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, who became honored within the palace and were eventually created dukes.
Around 698, Wu Chengsi and another nephew of Wu Zetian's,
Wu Sansi
Wu Sansi (died August 7, 707), known posthumously as Prince Xuan of Liang (), was a Chinese prince and politician of the Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties. Wu Sansi served as a chancellor and imperial prince during the reign of his aunt, Empress Wu Zetia ...
, the Prince of Liang, repeatedly made attempts to have officials persuade Wu Zetian to make one of them crown prince—again arguing that an emperor should pass the throne to someone of the same clan. But Di Renjie, who by now had become a trusted chancellor, firmly opposed the idea, and proposed that Li Zhe be recalled instead. He was supported in this by fellow chancellors
Wang Fangqing
Wang Fangqing (王方慶; died June 702), formal name Wang Lin (王綝) but went by the courtesy name of Fangqing,''New Book of Tang'', vol. 72, part 2. formally Duke Zhen of Shiquan (石泉貞公), was a Chinese politician during the Tang dynasty ...
and
Wang Jishan
Wang Jishan (王及善) (618 – August 28, 699), formally Duke Zhen of Xing (邢貞公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving as a chancellor during Wu Zetian's reign.
B ...
, as well as Wu Zetian's close advisor
Ji Xu
Ji Xu () was a Chinese politician during Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving briefly as chancellor.
Background
It is not known when Ji Xu was born, but it is known that he was from the Zhou capital Luoyang. He was said to be tall, good at hiding h ...
, who further persuaded the Zhang brothers to support the idea. In spring 698, Wu agreed and recalled Li Zhe from exile. Soon, Li Dan offered to yield the crown prince position to Li Zhe, and Wu created Li Zhe crown prince. She soon changed his name back to Li Xiǎn and then Wu Xian.
Later, Ashina Mochuo demanded a
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
prince for marriage to his daughter, part of a plot to join his family with the Tang, displace the Zhou, and restore Tang rule over China, under his influence. When Wu sent a member of her own family, grandnephew Wu Yanxiu (), to marry Mochuo's daughter instead, he rejected him. Mochuo had no intention to cement the peace treaty with a marriage. Instead, when Wu Yanxiu arrived, he detained him and then launched a major attack on Zhou, advancing as far south as Zhao Prefecture (, in modern
Shijiazhuang
Shijiazhuang; Mandarin: ; formerly known as Shimen and romanized as Shihkiachwang is the capital and most populous city of China's Hebei Province. A prefecture-level city southwest of Beijing, it administers eight districts, three county-le ...
,
Hebei
Hebei is a Provinces of China, province in North China. It is China's List of Chinese administrative divisions by population, sixth-most populous province, with a population of over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. It bor ...
) before withdrawing.
In 699, the Tibetan threat ceased. Emperor
Tridu Songtsen
Tridu Songtsen (), Tridu Songtsen or Dusong Mangban, (b.668 – 704d.; r. 676–704 CE) was the 36th king of Tibet and reigned during the Tibetan Empire period.
Ascent to throne
'Dus-rong ascended the Tibetan throne after the death of his father, ...
, unhappy that Gar Trinring was monopolizing power, slaughtered Trinring's associates when Trinring was away from
Lhasa
Lhasa, officially the Chengguan District of Lhasa City, is the inner urban district of Lhasa (city), Lhasa City, Tibet Autonomous Region, Southwestern China.
Lhasa is the second most populous urban area on the Tibetan Plateau after Xining ...
. He then defeated Trinring in battle, and Trinring committed suicide. Gar Tsenba and Trinring's son,
Lun Gongren
Lun Gongren (, 663–723) was a general of China during the Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty.
Lun was a Tibetan, his Tibetan name was Gar Mangpoje (). After his father Gar Trinring Tsendro was purged by the young king Tridu Songtsen, he ...
(), surrendered to Zhou. After this, the Tibetan Empire underwent internal turmoil for several years, and there was peace for Zhou in the border region.
Also in 699, Wu, realizing that she was growing old, feared that after her death, Li Xian and the Wu clan princes would not have peace with each other. She made him, Li Dan, Princess Taiping, Princess Taiping's second husband
Wu Youji
Wu Youji () (died July 17, 712), posthumous name Prince Zhongjian of Ding (定忠簡王), was an imperial prince of the Wu Zhou dynasty and an official of the Tang dynasty. He is best known as the second husband of Wu Zetian's powerful daughter P ...
(a nephew of hers), the Prince of Ding, and other Wu clan princes to swear an oath to each other.
Late reign (701–705)

As Wu grew older, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong became increasingly powerful, and even the princes of the Wu clan sought their favour. She increasingly relied on them to handle the affairs of state. This was secretly discussed and criticized by her grandson
Li Chongrun
Li Chongrun (; 2 March 682 – October 8, 701), né Li Chongzhao (), formally Crown Prince Yide ( ), was an imperial prince of the Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty. He was the only son of Emperor Zhongzong (Li Zhe/Li Xian) and Emperor Z ...
, the Prince of Shao (Li Xian's son), granddaughter
Li Xianhui
Princess Yongtai (), born Li Xianhui (); 685 – October 9, 701Chinese-Western Calendar Converter), courtesy name Nonghui (穠輝), was a princess of the Tang dynasty.
Biography
Li was the seventh daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang and the ...
() the Lady Yongtai (Li Chongrun's sister), and Li Xianhui's husband Wu Yanji () the Prince of Wei (Wu Zetian's grandnephew and Wu Chengsi's son). Somehow the discussion was leaked, and Zhang Yizhi reported this to Wu. She ordered the three of them to commit suicide.
Despite her age, Wu continued to be interested in finding talented officials and promoting them. People she promoted in her old age included
Cui Xuanwei Cui Xuanwei (; 638–706), né Cui Ye (崔曄), posthumous name Prince Wenxian of Boling (博陵文獻王), was an official of China's Tang dynasty and Wu Zhou dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reigns of Wu Zetian and her son Emperor Zho ...
and
Zhang Jiazhen.
By 703, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong had become resentful of Wei Yuanzhong, who by now was a senior chancellor, for dressing down their brother Zhang Changyi () and rejecting the promotion of another brother, Zhang Changqi (). They also were fearful that if Wu died, Wei would find a way to execute them, and therefore accused Wei and Gao Jian (), an official favored by Princess Taiping, of speculating on Wu's old age and death. They initially got Wei's subordinate
Zhang Shuo to agree to corroborate the charges, but once Zhang Shuo was before Wu, he instead accused Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong of forcing him to bear false witness. As a result, Wei, Gao, and Zhang Shuo were exiled, but escaped death.
Removal and death

In autumn 704, accusations of corruption began to be levelled against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, as well as their brothers Zhang Changqi, Zhang Changyi, and Zhang Tongxiu (). Zhang Tongxiu and Zhang Changyi were demoted, but even though the officials Li Chengjia () and
Huan Yanfan Huan Yanfan (桓彥範) (653–706), courtesy name Shize (士則), formally Prince Zhonglie of Fuyang (扶陽忠烈王), briefly known during the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang as Wei Yanfan (韋彥範), was an official of the Chinese Tang dyna ...
advocated that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong be removed as well, Wu Zetian, taking the suggestion of the chancellor
Yang Zaisi Yang Zaisi (楊再思) (died 709), formally Duke Gong of Zheng (鄭恭公), was a Chinese politician in the Tang dynasty, serving several times as chancellor during the reigns of Wu Zetian and her son Emperor Zhongzong. Yang was criticized by trad ...
, did not do so. Subsequently, charges of corruption against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were renewed by the chancellor
Wei Anshi
Wei Anshi (; 651–714), posthumous name Duke Wenzhen of Xun (), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zhou dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reigns of Wu Zetian, her sons Emperor Zhongzong and Emperor Ruizong, and her gr ...
.

In winter 704, Wu Zetian became seriously ill for a period, and only the Zhang brothers were allowed to see her; the chancellors were not. This led to speculation that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were plotting to take over the throne, and there were repeated accusations of treason. Once her condition improved, Cui Xuanwei advocated that only Li Xian and Li Dan be allowed to attend to her—a suggestion she did not accept. After further accusations against the Zhang brothers by Huan and
Song Jing
Song Jing (宋璟) (663 – November 21, 737), formally Duke Wenzhen of Guangping (廣平文貞公), was a Chinese politician during the Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving as the Chancellor of the Tang dynasty, chancellor during th ...
, Wu allowed Song to investigate, but before the investigation was completed, she issued a pardon for Zhang Yizhi, derailing Song's investigation.
By spring 705, Wu was seriously ill again.
Zhang Jianzhi
Zhang Jianzhi (張柬之) (625Zhang's birth year of 625 is based on his biographies in the ''Old Book of Tang'' and the ''New Book of Tang'', both of which indicated that he was 81 at the time of his death in 706. However, the ''New Book of Tang'' ...
,
Jing Hui Jing Hui (敬暉) (died 706), courtesy name Zhongye (仲瞱), formally Prince Sumin of Pingyang (平陽肅愍王), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Zhongzon ...
, and
Yuan Shuji
Yuan Shuji (; died 706), posthumous name Prince Zhenlie of Nanyang (南陽貞烈王), was an official of China's Tang dynasty and Wu Zhou, Wu Zhou dynasty, serving as Chancellor of the Tang dynasty, chancellor during the reign of Emperor Zhongzong ...
planned a coup to kill the Zhang brothers. They convinced the generals
Li Duozuo
Li Duozuo () (died August 7, 707), formally the Prince of Liaoyang (遼陽王), was an ethnically Mohe people, Mohe general of the History of China, Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty. He is mostly known for his participation in the ...
, Li Zhan (), and Yang Yuanyan () and another chancellor,
Yao Yuanzhi, to be involved. With agreement from Li Xian as well, they acted on 20 February, killing
Zhang Yizhi
Zhang Yizhi (張易之; died February 20, 705),Both volume 207 of ''Zizhi Tongjian'' and Wu Zetian's biography in volume 4 of ''New Book of Tang'' recorded that the Shenglong Coup took place on the ''guimao'' day of the 1st month of the 1st year of ...
and
Zhang Changzong
Zhang Yizhi (張易之; died February 20, 705),Both volume 207 of ''Zizhi Tongjian'' and Wu Zetian's biography in volume 4 of ''New Book of Tang'' recorded that the Shenglong Coup took place on the ''guimao'' day of the 1st month of the 1st year of ...
, and had Changsheng Hall (), where Wu was residing, surrounded. They then reported to her that the Zhang brothers had been executed for treason, and forced her to yield the throne to Li Xian. On 21 February, an edict was issued in her name that made Li Xian regent, and on 22 February, an edict was issued in her name passing the throne to him. On 23 February, Li Xian formally retook the throne, and the next day, under heavy guard, Wu was moved to the subsidiary palace, Shangyang Palace (), while still honored with the title of Empress Regent Zetian Dasheng ().
On 3 March, the restoration of the Tang dynasty was celebrated, thus ending the Zhou.
[.]
Wu died on 16 December,
and, pursuant to a final edict issued in her name, was no longer called empress regnant, but instead "Empress Consort Zetian Dasheng" ().
In 706, Wu's son
Emperor Zhongzong had his father, Emperor Gaozong and Wu interred in a joint burial at the
Qianling Mausoleum
The Qian Mausoleum () is a Tang dynasty (618–907) tomb site located in Qian County, Shaanxi Province, China, and is northwest of Xi'an.Valder (2002), 80. Built in 684 (with additional construction until 706), the tombs of the mausoleum comple ...
, near the capital
Chang'an
Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
on Mount Liang. Zhongzong also buried at Qianling his brother
Li Xián, son
Li Chongrun
Li Chongrun (; 2 March 682 – October 8, 701), né Li Chongzhao (), formally Crown Prince Yide ( ), was an imperial prince of the Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty. He was the only son of Emperor Zhongzong (Li Zhe/Li Xian) and Emperor Z ...
, and daughter Li Xianhui () the Lady Yongtai (posthumously honored as the Princess Yongtai)—victims of Wu's wrath.
Wu Zhou dynasty
In 690, Wu Zetian founded the
Wu Zhou dynasty
Zhou, known in historiography as the Wu Zhou (), was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that existed between 690 and 705. The dynasty consisted of the reign of one empress regnant, Wu Zhao (Wu Zetian), who usurped the throne of her son, ...
, named after the historical
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
(1046–256 BC). The traditional historical view is to discount the Wu Zhou dynasty: dynasties by definition involve the succession of rulers from one family, and the Wu Zhou dynasty was founded by Wu and ended within her lifetime, with her abdication in 705. The alternative is to view the Wu Zhou dynasty as the revival of the historical Zhou dynasty, which was ruled (at least nominally) by the
Ji family, almost a thousand years before. Either way, the Wu Zhou dynasty was a brief interruption of the Li family's Tang dynasty, not a fully realized dynasty. But Wu's claim to found a new dynasty was little opposed at the time (690). The 15-year period that Wu designated as her "Zhou dynasty", considered in the context of nearly a half century of ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' rule (–705), reveals a remarkable and still debated period of history. In this context, designating a new dynasty with her as emperor can be seen as part of her power politics and as the culmination of her rule. Though Wu's Zhou dynasty had its own notable characteristics, they are difficult to separate from Wu's reign of power, which lasted for about half of a century.
Wu's consolidation of power in part relied on a system of spies. She used informants to choose people to eliminate, a process that peaked in 697 with the wholesale demotion, exile, or killing of various aristocratic families and scholars, furthermore prohibiting their sons from holding office.
Wu eliminated many of her real, potential, or perceived rivals to power by means of death (including execution, suicide by command, and more or less directly killing people), demotion, and exile. Mostly this was carried out by her secret police, led by people like Wao Ganjun and
Lai Junchen
Lai Junchen ( Chinese: 來俊臣) (died 26 June 697) was a Chinese politician and writer. He was a well-known secret police official during the Chinese Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties, whose ability to interrogate and falsely implicate officials of cr ...
, who were known to have written the ''Manual of Accusation'', a document detailing steps for interrogation and obtaining confessions by torture. One of these methods, the "Dying Swine's Melancholy" (), which merely indicated a level of pain inflicted by a torture device, seems to have been conflated in the years following Wu's death with the story of the "human swine" torture conducted by
Empress Lü Zhi
The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
, in which
her victim had her eyes gouged out, hands and feet chopped off, ears burnt, and was imprisoned in a latrine.
Wu targeted various people, including many in her own family. In reaction to an attempt to remove her from power, in 684, she massacred 12 entire collateral branches of the imperial family.
Besides this, she also altered the ancient balance of power in China dating to the
Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty ( ) was the first Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty (256 BC). Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng enga ...
. The old area of the
Qin state
Qin (, , or ''Ch'in'') was an ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. It is traditionally dated to 897 BC. The state of Qin originated from a reconquest of western lands that had previously been lost to the Xirong. Its location at ...
was later called
Guanzhong
Guanzhong (, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben str ...
—literally, the area "within the fortified mountain passes". From this area of northwest China, the Ying family of Qin arose, unifying China into its first historical empire. During the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
,
Sima Qian
Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...
records in his ''
Shiji
The ''Shiji'', also known as ''Records of the Grand Historian'' or ''The Grand Scribe's Records'', is a Chinese historical text that is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st cen ...
'' that Guanzhong had three-tenths of China's population but six-tenths of its wealth. Additionally, at the beginning of Wu's ascendency, Guanzhong was still the stronghold of the most nationally powerful aristocratic families, even though economic development in other parts of China had improved the lot of families in other regions. The Guangzhong aristocracy was not willing to relinquish its hold on the reins of government, but some of the more newly wealthy families in other areas, such as the
North China Plain
The North China Plain () is a large-scale downfaulted rift basin formed in the late Paleogene and Neogene and then modified by the deposits of the Yellow River. It is the largest alluvial plain of China. The plain is bordered to the north by th ...
or
Hubei
Hubei is a province of China, province in Central China. It has the List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP, seventh-largest economy among Chinese provinces, the second-largest within Central China, and the third-largest among inland ...
, were eager for a larger share of national power. Most of the opposition to Wu was from the Guangzhong families of northwest China. Accordingly, she repressed them, instead favoring less privileged families, thus raising to the ranks of power many talented but less aristocratic families, often recruited through the official examination system.
Many of those so favored originated from the North China plain. Through a process of eliminating or diminishing the power of the established aristocracy, whom she perceived as disloyal to her, and establishing a reformed upper class in China loyal to her, Wu made major social changes that historians are still evaluating.
Many of Wu's measures were popular and helped her to gain support for her rule. Wu came to power during a time in China in which the people were fairly contented, the administration was run well, and the economy was characterized by rising living standards.
For the most part, as far as the masses were concerned, Wu continued in this manner. She was determined that free, self-sufficient farmers continue to work their own land, so she periodically used the
''juntian'', equal-field system, together with updated census figures to ensure fair land allocations, reallocating as necessary.
Much of her success was due to her various edicts (including those known as her "Acts of Grace"), which helped satisfy the needs of the lower classes through various acts of relief, her widening recruitment to government service to include previously excluded gentry and commoners, and her generous promotions and pay raises for the lower ranks.
Wu used her military and diplomatic skills to enhance her position. The
''fubing'' system of self-supportive soldier-farmer colonies, which provided local militia and labor services for her government, allowed her to maintain her armed forces at reduced expense.
She also pursued a policy of military action to expand the empire to its furthest extent ever up to that point in Central Asia. Expansion efforts against
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
and to the northwest were less successful. Allying with the Korean kingdom of Silla
against Goguryeo with the promise of ceding Goguryeo's territory to Silla, Chinese forces
occupied Goguryeo after its defeat, and even began to occupy Silla territory. Silla resisted the imposition of Chinese rule, and by allying with Goguryeo and Baekche, was able to expel its former ally from the peninsula. Hong argues that Silla's success was in part due to a shift in Wu's focus to Tibet and inadequate support for the forces in the Korean peninsula. In 694, Wu's forces decisively defeated the Tibetan–Western Turk alliance and retook the
Four Garrisons of Anxi
The Four Garrisons of Anxi were Chinese military garrisons installed by the Tang dynasty in the Tarim Basin between 648 and 658. They were stationed at the Indo-European city-states of Qiuci ( Kucha), Yutian ( Hotan), Shule ( Kashgar) and Ya ...
.
In 651, shortly after the
Muslim conquest of Persia
As part of the early Muslim conquests, which were initiated by Muhammad in 622, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered the Sasanian Empire between 632 and 654. This event led to the decline of Zoroastrianism, which had been the official religion of ...
, the first Arab ambassador arrived in China.
Reform of the imperial examination system
One apparatus of government that fell into Wu's power was the
imperial examination
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
system, the basic theory and practice of which was to recruit into government service those men who were the best educated, most talented, and had the best potential to perform their duties, and to do so by testing a pool of candidates to determine this. This pool was male only, and the qualified pool of candidates and resulting placements into official positions was on a relatively small scale at the time Wu took control of government. The official tests examined things considered important for functionaries of the highly developed, bureaucratic government structure of the imperial government, such as level of literacy in terms of reading and writing and possession of the specific knowledge considered necessary and desirable for a governmental official, such as
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
precepts on the nature of virtue and theory on the proper ordering of and relationships within society. Wu continued to use the imperial examination system to recruit civil servants, and introduced major changes to the system she inherited, including increasing the pool of candidates permitted to take the test by allowing commoners and gentry, previously disqualified by their background, to take it. In 693, she expanded the governmental examination system and greatly increased the importance of this method of recruiting government officials.
Wu provided increased opportunity for the representation within government to people of the
North China Plain
The North China Plain () is a large-scale downfaulted rift basin formed in the late Paleogene and Neogene and then modified by the deposits of the Yellow River. It is the largest alluvial plain of China. The plain is bordered to the north by th ...
versus people of the northwestern aristocratic families, and the successful candidates recruited through the examination system became an elite group within her government.
The historical details of the consequences of Wu's promoting a new group of people from previously disenfranchised backgrounds into prominence as powerful governmental officials, and the examination system's role, remain debated by scholars of this subject.
Religion
The Great Cloud Sutra
Wu Zetian used her political powers to harness from Buddhist practices a strategy to build sovereignty and legitimacy to her throne while establishing the
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
in a society under Confucian and patriarchal ideals. One of the first steps she took to legitimize her ascension to the throne was to proclaim herself as the reincarnation of the Devi of Pure Radiance (''Jingguang tiannü'') through a series of prophecies.
In 690, Wu sought out the support of the monk
Xue Huaiyi
Huaiyi (懷義; died December 25, 694), né Feng Xiaobao (), also referred to as Xue Huaiyi (), was a Buddhist monk who was known for being the lover of Wu Zetian, the only female emperor in the history of China.
Background
Huaiyi, whose birth n ...
, her reputed lover, and other nine orthodox Buddhist monks, to compose the apocryphal ''Commentary on the Meanings of the Prophecies About the Divine Sovereign in the Great Cloud Sutra'' (''Dayunjing Shenhuang Shouji Yishu'').

Translated from a late fourth-century version in
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
to Chinese, the original ''Great Cloud Sutra'' (''Dayunjing'') accentuated in Wu's ''Commentary'' had
fascicles describing a conversation between the Buddha and the Devi of Pure Radiance. In the sutra, the Buddha foretells to ''Jingguang'' that he would be a bodhisattva reincarnated in a woman's body in order to convert beings and rule over the territory of a country.
Wu's Buddhist supporters meticulously propagated the ''Commentary'' "on the eve of her accession to the dragon throne" while seeking to justify the various events that led Wu to occupy the position of ''Huangdi'' as a female ruler and
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
.
Since gender in the Buddhist Devi worlds have no standard form, Wu later took a further step to transcend her gender limitations by identifying herself as the incarnation of two important male Buddhist divinities,
Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
and
Vairocana
Vairocana (from Sanskrit: Vi+rocana, "from the sun" or "belonging to the sun", "Solar", or "Shining"), also known as Mahāvairocana (Great Vairocana), is a major Buddha from Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Vairocana is often interpreted, in text ...
. Her narrative was intentionally crafted to persuade the Confucian establishment, circumvent the Five Impediments that restricted women from holding political and religious power, and gain public support.
Indian influences
According to
William Dalrymple
William Benedict Hamilton-Dalrymple (born 20 March 1965) is a Delhi-based Scottish people, Scottish historian and art historian, as well as a curator, broadcaster and critic. He spends nine months of each year on his goat farm in India.
He i ...
, Wu used Buddhist texts brought from
Nalanda University
Nālandā University (informally NU; or ISO: Nālandā Vishwavidyalaya) is a central research university located in the ancient city of Rajgir in the state of Bihar, India. Designated as an Institute of National Importance (INI) and excelle ...
by
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
to legitimise her rule, and her reign resulted in a substantial importation of Indian ideas. Under her, Buddhism became a state religion, and slaughter of animals was strictly prohibited. Wu also implemented several Indian principles, such as those of the
Ashokan edicts
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire who ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from 268 BCE to ...
, into the governance of her empire, and had many Indians become part of the royal court, including faith healers and astrologers.
Sacrifice on Mount Tai
In relation to Daoism, there are records that point to Wu's participation in important religious rituals, such as the ''tou long on''
Mount Song
Mount Song (, "lofty mountain") is an isolated mountain range in north central China's Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River. It is known in literary and folk tradition as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of ...
, and ''feng'' and ''shan'' on
Mount Tai
Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the ''Jade Emperor Peak'' (), which is commonly reported as being t ...
. One of the most important rituals was performed in 666. When Emperor Gaozong offered sacrifices to the deities of heaven and earth, Wu, in an unprecedented action, offered sacrifices after him, with Princess Dowager Yan, mother of Gaozong's brother
Li Zhen, Prince of Yue, offering sacrifices after her.
Wu's procession of ladies up Mount Tai conspicuously linked Wu with the Chinese empire's most sacred traditional rites.
Another important performance was made in 700, when Wu conducted the ''tou long'' Daoist expiatory rite. Her participation in the rituals had political as well as religious motives. Such ceremonies served to consolidate Wu's life in politics and show she possessed the
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven ( zh, t=天命, p=Tiānmìng, w=, l=Heaven's command) is a Chinese ideology#Political ideologies, political ideology that was used in History of China#Ancient China, Ancient China and Chinese Empire, Imperial China to legit ...
.
Literature
North Gate Scholars
Toward the end of Gaozong's life, Wu began engaging a number of mid-level officials who had literary talent, including Yuan Wanqing (),
Liu Yizhi
Liu Yizhi (劉禕之; 631 – June 22, 687), courtesy name Ximei (希美), was a Chinese politician of the Tang dynasty, serving as chancellor during the first reign of Emperor Ruizong. He was initially a trusted advisor of Emperor Ruizong's powe ...
,
Fan Lübing Fàn Lübing (范履冰, died March 26, 690) was a Chinese politician during the Tang dynasty, serving as chancellor during the first reign of Emperor Ruizong. He was a member of the elite Fàn family.
During Emperor Gaozong's reign
It is not k ...
, Miao Chuke (), Zhou Simao (), and Han Chubin (), to write a number of works on her behalf, including the ''Biographies of Notable Women'' (), ''Guidelines for Imperial Subjects'' (), and ''New Teachings for Official Staff Members'' (). Collectively, they became known as the "North Gate Scholars" (), because they served inside the palace, which was north of the imperial government buildings, and Wu sought advice from them to divert the powers of the chancellors.
The "Twelve Suggestions"
On 28 January 675, Wu submitted 12 suggestions. The specific proposal has not survive in full, but at least 7 suggestions are known.
One was that the work of
Laozi
Laozi (), also romanized as Lao Tzu #Name, among other ways, was a semi-legendary Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosopher and author of the ''Tao Te Ching'' (''Laozi''), one of the foundational texts of Taoism alongside the ''Zhuangzi (book) ...
(whose family name was Li and to whom the Tang imperial clan traced its ancestry),
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated por ...
, should be added to imperial university students' required reading. Another was that a three-year mourning period should be observed for a mother's death in all cases, not just in cases when the father was no longer alive. Emperor Gaozong praised her suggestions and adopted them.
Modified Chinese characters
In 690, Wu's cousin's son
Zong Qinke {{Short description, Chinese chancellor of the Tang dynasty
Zong Qinke (宗秦客) (died 691?) was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving briefly as chancellor during Wu Zetian's reign. Among other things, he ...
submitted a number of
modified Chinese characters intended to showcase Wu's greatness. She adopted them, and took one of the modified characters, Zhao (), to be her formal name (i.e., the name by which the people would exercise
naming taboo
A naming taboo is a cultural taboo against speaking or writing the given names of exalted persons, notably in China and within the Chinese cultural sphere. It was enforced by several laws throughout Imperial China, but its cultural and possibly ...
on). was made from two other characters: Ming () on top, meaning "light" or "clarity", and Kong () on the bottom, meaning "sky". The implication appeared to be that she would be like the light shining from the sky. (Zhao (), meaning "shine", from which was derived, might have been her original name, but evidence of that is inconclusive.) Later that year, after successive petition drives started by the low-level official
Fu Youyi
Fu Youyi (傅遊藝) (died August 24, 691), known as Wu Youyi (武遊藝) during the reign of Wu Zetian, was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving as a chancellor briefly after she took the throne in 690. He ...
began to occur in waves, asking her to take the throne, Emperor Ruizong offered to take the name of Wu as well. On 14 October 690, she approved the requests. She changed the state's name to Zhou on 16 October, claiming ancestry from the
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
, and took the throne as Empress Regnant (with the title Empress Regnant Shengshen (), literally "Divine and Sacred Emperor or Empress Regnant") on 19 October. Ruizong was deposed and made crown prince with the atypical title ''Huangsi'' ().
This thus interrupted the Tang dynasty, and Wu became the first (and only) woman to reign over China as empress regnant.
Poetry
Wu's court was a focus of literary creativity. Forty-six of Wu's poems are collected in the ''
Complete Tang Poems
''Complete Tang Poems'' (or ') is the largest collection of Tang poetry, containing some 49,000 lyric poems by more than twenty-two hundred poets. In 1705, it was commissioned at the direction of the Qing dynasty Kangxi Emperor and published u ...
'' and 61 essays under her name are recorded in the ''Quan Tangwen'' (''Collected Tang Essays''). Many of those writings serve political ends, but there is one poem in which she laments her mother after she died and expresses her despair at not being able to see her again.
During Wu's reign, the imperial court produced various works of which she was a sponsor, such as the anthology of her court's poetry known as the ''
Zhuying ji'' (''Collection of Precious Glories''), which contained poems by
Cui Rong,
Li Jiao,
Zhang Yue, and others, arranged according to the poets' rank at court. Among the literary developments that took place during Wu's time (and partly at her court) was the final stylistic development of the "new style" poetry of the
regulated verse (''jintishi''), by the poetic pair
Song Zhiwen and
Shen Quanqi.
Wu also patronized scholars by founding an institute to produce the ''Collection of Biographies of Famous Women''.
The development of what is considered characteristic
Tang poetry
Tang poetry () refers to poetry written in or around the time of or in the characteristic style of China's Tang dynasty, (June 18, 618 – June 4, 907, including the 690–705 reign of Wu Zetian) and/or follows a certain style, often considered a ...
is traditionally ascribed to
Chen Zi'ang
Chen Zi'ang (, 661 (or 656)–702), courtesy name Boyu (), was a Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. He was important in helping to bring into being the type of poetry which is considered to be characteristically "Tang". Dissatisfied with the ...
, one of Wu's ministers.
Literary allusions
Literary allusions to Wu may carry several connotations: a woman who has inappropriately overstepped her bounds, the hypocrisy of preaching compassion while simultaneously engaging in a pattern of political corruption and vicious behavior. For many centuries, the establishment used Wu as an example of what can go wrong when a woman is in charge.
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...
's wife
Jiang Qing
Jiang Qing (March 191414 May 1991), also known as Madame Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary, actress, and political figure. She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Chairman of the Communis ...
rehabilitated Wu as part of a propaganda campaign to suggest she be considered as a successor to her ailing husband.
Frank Dikotter asserted that
Jiang Qing
Jiang Qing (March 191414 May 1991), also known as Madame Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary, actress, and political figure. She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Chairman of the Communis ...
"had started to compare herself to the only empress ever to have ruled in Chinese history, namely Wu Zetian. Articles praising the sixth-century empress as a great unifier of the nation appeared in the press, even though she was popularly reviled as a ruthless, wicked ruler who had mercilessly crushed her opponents." However, Dikotter did not cite sources for his claim.
In his biography ''Wu'',
Jonathan Clements
Jonathan Michael Clements (born 9 July 1971) is a British author and scriptwriter. His non-fiction works include biographies of Confucius, Koxinga and Qin Shi Huang, as well as monthly opinion columns for '' Neo'' magazine. He is also the co-au ...
writes that these wildly differing uses of a historical figure often led to contradictory and even hysterical characterizations. Many alleged poisonings and other incidents, such as her daughter's premature death, may have rational explanations that have been twisted by later opponents.
Evaluation
Quotes
The traditional Chinese historical view of Wu Zetian generally was mixed—admiring her for her abilities in governing the state, but vilifying her for her actions in seizing imperial power.
Luo Binwang
Luo Binwang (, ca. 619–684?), courtesy name Guanguang (觀光/观光), was a List of Chinese language poets, Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. His family was from Wuzhou, modern Yiwu, Zhejiang, but he was raised in Shandong. Luo is grouped wit ...
even wrote along these lines in a declaration during her lifetime, in support of Li Jingye's rebellion. Typical was a commentary by the
Later Jin dynasty historian
Liu Xu
Liu Xu (; 888–947),'' History of the Five Dynasties'', vol. 89. courtesy name Yaoyuan (), formally the Duke of Qiao (), was a Chinese historian and politician of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period states Later Tang and Later J ...
, the lead editor of the ''
Old Book of Tang
The ''Old Book of Tang'', or simply the ''Book of Tang'', is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdo ...
'':
Some of the diversity in terms of points of agreement and even outright divergences in modern evaluations of Wu can be seen in the following quotes by modern non-Chinese authors:
Confucian viewpoints
Wu Zetian's rise and reign was criticized harshly by
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
historians like
Liu Xu
Liu Xu (; 888–947),'' History of the Five Dynasties'', vol. 89. courtesy name Yaoyuan (), formally the Duke of Qiao (), was a Chinese historian and politician of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period states Later Tang and Later J ...
and Yuan Shu, But, some of those had praises for Wu Zetian like Liu Xu (in Quotes section), Sima Guang
In the early period of the Tang dynasty, because all the emperors were her direct descendants, Wu was evaluated favorably. But commentary in subsequent periods, especially the book ''
Zizhi Tongjian
The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...
'' compiled by
Sima Guang
Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', a monumental work of history.
B ...
, harshly criticized her. By the period of Southern
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
, when
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) i ...
was firmly established as China's mainstream political ideology, it determined the evaluation of Wu.
Era names
Chancellors during reign
Wu Zetian had many chancellors during her reign as monarch of her self-proclaimed Zhou dynasty, many of them notable in their own right. (For full list see
List of chancellors of Wu Zetian).
Family
See also
*
Chinese characters of Empress Wu
The Chinese characters of Empress Wu, or the Zetian characters (), are Chinese characters introduced by Empress Wu Zetian, the only empress regnant in the history of China, in order to demonstrate her power. The characters were not created by th ...
*
Imperial consorts of Tang China
The ranks of imperial consorts have varied over the course of Chinese history but remained important throughout owing to its prominence in the management of the inner court and in imperial succession, which ranked heirs according to the prominen ...
*
Li Chong
*
Longmen Grottoes
The Longmen Grottoes () or Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province, ...
*
Qianling Mausoleum
The Qian Mausoleum () is a Tang dynasty (618–907) tomb site located in Qian County, Shaanxi Province, China, and is northwest of Xi'an.Valder (2002), 80. Built in 684 (with additional construction until 706), the tombs of the mausoleum comple ...
*
Wu Chengsi
Wu Chengsi (; 649-July 22, 698), courtesy name Fengxian, formally Prince Xuan of Wei (魏宣王), was a nephew of the Chinese sovereign Wu Zetian and an imperial prince of the Zhou dynasty (690–705), Wu Zhou dynasty. He participated in her planni ...
*
Wu Sansi
Wu Sansi (died August 7, 707), known posthumously as Prince Xuan of Liang (), was a Chinese prince and politician of the Tang and Wu Zhou dynasties. Wu Sansi served as a chancellor and imperial prince during the reign of his aunt, Empress Wu Zetia ...
*
Yang Zhirou
*
Zhuying ji
*
Princess Taiping
Princess Taiping (, lit. "Princess of Great Peace", personal name unknown, possibly Li Lingyue (李令月) (after 662 – 2 August 713) was a royal princess and prominent political figure of the Tang dynasty and her mother Wu Zetian's Zhou dyna ...
*
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
*
Women in Tang China
*
List of Buddha claimants
This is a list of notable people who have claimed to have attained enlightenment and become buddhas, claimed to be manifestations of bodhisattvas, identified themselves as Gautama Buddha or Maitreya Buddha, or been honored as buddhas or bodhisattv ...
*
Cixi
Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908) was a Manchu noblewoman of the Yehe Nara clan who effectively but periodically controlled the Chinese government in the late Qing dynasty as empress dowager and regent for almost 50 ...
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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Further reading
*
*
* Offers a critical appraisal of many primary sources and includes an appendix comparing fictional accounts.
* A scholarly biography.
*
*
* Explores the life of Empress Wu Zetian and the ways women found to participate in public life, despite the societal constraints of dynastic China.
External links
, - style="text-align: center;"
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wu, Zetian
624 births
705 deaths
7th-century Chinese monarchs
7th-century Chinese poets
7th-century Chinese women writers
7th-century empresses consort
8th-century Chinese monarchs
8th-century Chinese poets
8th-century empresses regnant
8th-century Chinese women writers
Chinese empresses regnant
Chinese women poets
Tang dynasty imperial consorts
Remarried royal consorts
7th-century empresses regnant
Filicides
Tang dynasty Buddhists
Tang dynasty empresses dowager
Tang dynasty empresses
Tang dynasty poets
Emperor Taizong of Tang
Usurpers
8th-century Chinese women
Chinese Buddhist monarchs
Buddhism and women
Chinese concubines
7th-century women regents
7th-century regents
Founders of Imperial Chinese dynasties
Chinese reformers