Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield (1817 – March 31, 1876), dubbed "The Black Swan" (a play on

Jenny Lind Johanna Maria Lind (Madame Goldschmidt) (6 October 18202 November 1887) was a Swedish opera singer, often called the "Swedish Nightingale". One of the most highly regarded singers of the 19th century, she performed in soprano roles in opera in ...

's sobriquet, "The Swedish Nightingale" and Catherine Hayes's "The Irish Swan"), was an American singer considered the best-known Black concert artist of her time. She was lauded by

James M. Trotter James Monroe Trotter (February 7, 1842 – February 26, 1892) was an American teacher, soldier, employee of the United States Post Office Department, a music historian, and Recorder of Deeds in Washington, D.C. Born into slavery in Mississippi, h ...

for her "remarkably sweet tones and wide vocal compass". Trotter described her as the first African American concert singer, which has been repeated through many biographies.

Early life

Greenfield was born into

slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...

Natchez, Mississippi Natchez ( ) is the only city in and the county seat of Adams County, Mississippi, United States. The population was 14,520 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census. Located on the Mississippi River across from Vidalia, Louisiana, Natchez was ...

sometime between 1808 and 1826 to Anna Greenfield and a man whose name may have been "Taylor." According to an 1854 article in ''The Tri-Weekly Commercial'', "her mother was of Indian descent, her father an African." Not much is known about her family, though her will referenced a sister, Mary Parker, and nieces and nephews. In the early 1820s, Greenfield's enslaver, Elizabeth H. Greenfield, a former

plantation owner The planter class was a racial and socioeconomic class which emerged in the Americas during European colonization in the early modern period. Members of the class, most of whom were settlers of European descent, consisted of individuals who ow ...

, moved to

Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...

after divorcing her second husband and

manumitted Manumission, or enfranchisement, is the act of freeing slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and ...

her slaves. E.H. Greenfield worked with the American Emancipation Society to send 18 formerly enslaved residents of the Greenfield plantation, including Anna Greenfield and two of her daughters, to

Liberia Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to Liberia–Sierra Leone border, its northwest, Guinea to Guinea–Liberia border, its north, Ivory Coast to Ivory Coast–Lib ...

on August 2, 1831, aboard the

brig A brig is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: two masts which are both square rig, square-rigged. Brigs originated in the second half of the 18th century and were a common type of smaller merchant vessel or warship from then until the l ...

''Criterion''. Greenfield remained in Philadelphia, becoming well acquainted with her upper-class white neighbors. She lived with E.H. Greenfield until she was about eight years old, then attending Clarkson School, a private,

Quaker Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally, others referred to them as Quakers ...

school, probably living with relatives. She studied music as a child, encouraged by E.H. Greenfield, although musical education was not generally provided by the Quakers with whom she associated. (While some sources state that E.H. Greenfield was herself a Quaker, others state only that she attended Quaker meetings "occasionally" and supported the Society of Friends financially.) She returned to live with E.H. Greenfield in 1836 to take care of her. This may have been a situation of indentured service, though E.H. Greenfield paid her wages, which was uncommon in these situations. After E.H. Greenfield's death in 1845, Greenfield was shut out of her inheritance. She established herself as a music teacher in Philadelphia before moving to

Buffalo Buffalo most commonly refers to: * True buffalo or Bubalina, a subtribe of wild cattle, including most "Old World" buffalo, such as water buffalo * Bison, a genus of wild cattle, including the American buffalo * Buffalo, New York, a city in the n ...

in 1851, where she had relatives and friends."Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield." ''Britannica School'', Encyclopædia Britannica, 8 Feb. 1999. school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Elizabeth-Taylor-Greenfield/105743. Accessed 10 Apr. 2023. According to one biographical account, she was discovered when compelled to sing on the boat ride to Buffalo.

Career

Early career

In about 1851, Greenfield began to sing at private parties, debuting at the Buffalo Musical Association under the patronage of Electa and Herman B. Potter. After her initial success in Buffalo and Rochester, she may have been briefly managed by two African American men from Philadelphia, but in 1851, she took on agent Colonel J. H. Wood, a

P. T. Barnum Phineas Taylor Barnum (July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman, and politician remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and founding with James Anthony Bailey the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. He was ...

-style promoter and supporter of the

Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 The Fugitive Slave Act or Fugitive Slave Law was a law passed by the 31st United States Congress on September 18, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850 between Southern interests in slavery and Northern Free-Soilers. The Act was one ...

, who would not allow Black patrons into her concerts. According to an 1853 exposé by

Martin Delany Martin Robison Delany (May 6, 1812January 24, 1885) was an American abolitionist, journalist, physician, military officer and writer who was arguably the first proponent of black nationalism. Delany is credited with the Pan-African slogan of "Af ...

, Wood took advantage of Greenfield professionally, handling her money and keeping her in a state of near slavery and isolation. Greenfield toured the East Coast and the Midwest from 1851 to 1853. In 1852, she toured in Canada, where she was likely the first Black woman to sing

art music Art music (alternatively called classical music, cultivated music, serious music, and canonic music) is music considered to be of high culture, high phonoaesthetic value. It typically implies advanced structural and theoretical considerationsJa ...

professionally. She was held up by

abolitionists Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was France in 1315, but it was later used in its colonies. T ...

as an example of the success that former slaves might realize. However, she was also followed by

racist Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...

and

pro-slavery Proslavery is support for slavery. It is sometimes found in the thought of ancient philosophers, religious texts, and in American and British writings especially before the American Civil War but also later through the 20th century. Arguments in ...

news coverage. Some news outlets accused of her being a

minstrel A minstrel was an entertainer, initially in medieval Europe. The term originally described any type of entertainer such as a musician, juggler, acrobat, singer or fool; later, from the sixteenth century, it came to mean a specialist enter ...

performer in

blackface Blackface is the practice of performers using burned cork, shoe polish, or theatrical makeup to portray a caricature of black people on stage or in entertainment. Scholarship on the origins or definition of blackface vary with some taking a glo ...

, which led to incidents of laughter and comic portrayal at her serious performances. Minstrel acts went on to use her as inspiration, with minstrel "Black Swan"s being staged through the 1870s. Following the tour, Greenfield lived briefly with Hiram E. Howard's family in Buffalo, helping raise their son who was later nicknamed "Greenfield" in her honor (particularly unique for a white child). Howard and

Eli Cook Eli Cook (1814–1865) was Mayor of the City of Buffalo, New York Buffalo is a Administrative divisions of New York (state), city in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York and county seat of Erie County, New York, Erie County. It l ...

helped Greenfield arrange her European tour in April of that year. Allegedly, around this time, Barnum offered to represent Greenfield. Elizabeth Greenfield 1853

Concert at Metropolitan Hall

In On March 31, 1853, Greenfield debuted at

Metropolitan Hall Metropolitan may refer to: Areas and governance (secular and ecclesiastical) * Metropolitan archdiocese, the jurisdiction of a metropolitan archbishop ** Metropolitan bishop or archbishop, leader of an ecclesiastical "mother see" * Metropolitan ar ...

New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...

, which held an audience of 4,000. The day before the concert, the

New-York Tribune The ''New-York Tribune'' (from 1914: ''New York Tribune'') was an American newspaper founded in 1841 by editor Horace Greeley. It bore the moniker ''New-York Daily Tribune'' from 1842 to 1866 before returning to its original name. From the 1840s ...

published "Particular Notice – No colored persons can be admitted, as there has been no part of the house appropriated for them," leading to uproar in the city. Before the concert, there were rumors that there would be

white supremacist White supremacy is the belief that white people are superior to those of other races. The belief favors the maintenance and defense of any power and privilege held by white people. White supremacy has roots in the now-discredited doctrine ...

riots and a threat of

arson Arson is the act of willfully and deliberately setting fire to or charring property. Although the act of arson typically involves buildings, the term can also refer to the intentional burning of other things, such as motor vehicles, watercr ...

. Even at the concert, Greenfield experienced prejudice, with the audience laughing as she took the stage and her escort onto the stage keeping his distance. Following this concert, Greenfield was greatly criticized for not realizing her social importance. After the concert, Greenfield apologized to her own people for their exclusion from the performance and gave a concert to benefit the Home of Aged Colored Persons and the

Colored Orphan Asylum The Colored Orphan Asylum was in New York City, from 1836 to 1946. It housed on average four hundred children annually and was mostly managed by women. Its first location was on Fifth Avenue between 42nd and 43rd Streets in Midtown Manhattan, ...

England

In March 1853, a testimonial concert in Buffalo funded a trip to Europe for additional training. However, a London manager defaulted, leaving her stranded. She contacted

British abolitionists British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and cultur ...

Lord Shaftesbury and

Harriet Beecher Stowe Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe (; June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American author and Abolitionism in the United States, abolitionist. She came from the religious Beecher family and wrote the popular novel ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' (185 ...

for help, and was introduced to the abolitionist elite. The noted abolitionist

Duchess of Sutherland The Duchess of Sutherland is the wife of the Duke of Sutherland, an extant title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom which was created by William IV in 1833. Duchesses of Sutherland * Elizabeth Leveson-Gower, Duchess of Sutherland (née Elizab ...

became Greenfield's patron. Concert promoter Robert W. Olliver handled the business, and singers

Italo Gardoni Italo Gardoni (12 March 1821 – 26 March 1882) was a leading operatic tenor, tenore di grazia singer from Italy who enjoyed a major international career during the middle decades of the 19th century. Along with Giovanni Mario, Gaetano Fraschini, ...

and Charles Cotton were hired to support her. Greenfield premiered in London at

Hanover Square Rooms The Hanover Square Rooms or the Queen's Concert Rooms were assembly rooms established, principally for musical performances, on the corner of Hanover Square, London, England, by Sir John Gallini in partnership with Johann Christian Bach and Ca ...

on May 31, 1853. She played at

Birmingham Town Hall Birmingham Town Hall is a concert hall and venue for popular assemblies opened in 1834 and situated in Victoria Square, Birmingham, England. It is a Grade I listed building. The hall underwent a major renovation between 2002 and 2007. It no ...

on June 23. Accounts disagree regarding her success in England, with

Kurt Gänzl Kurt-Friedrich Gänzl (born 15 February 1946) is a New Zealand writer, historian and former casting director and singer best known for his books about musical theatre. After a decade-long playwriting, acting and singing career, and a second car ...

noting "Some versions of 'history' of course, would have it otherwise, and I have read pieces about the lady speaking of her 'popularity' and her 'success' in Britain. It simply was not so. The time of the black vocalist – and certainly not a black vocalist as unprepared as this one – had not yet come." Sutherland introduced Greenfield to

Queen Victoria Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria, her death in January 1901. Her reign of 63 year ...

Chapel Royal A chapel royal is an establishment in the British and Canadian royal households serving the spiritual needs of the sovereign and the royal family. Historically, the chapel royal was a body of priests and singers that travelled with the monarc ...

organist,

George Thomas Smart Sir George Thomas Smart (10 May 1776 – 23 February 1867) was an English musician. Smart was born in London, his father being a music-seller. He was a choir-boy at the Chapel Royal, and was educated in music, becoming an expert violinist, orga ...

. She charmed Smart, who took her on as a student and presented her in concert. She gave a command performance for the queen at

Buckingham Palace Buckingham Palace () is a royal official residence, residence in London, and the administrative headquarters of the monarch of the United Kingdom. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is often at the centre of state occasions and r ...

on May 10, 1854; she was the first African American performer to perform before British royalty."Claiming Their Citizenship: African American Women From 1624-1009"
, Timeline, NWHM. Queen Victoria paid her twenty pounds, passage for her to return to the United States.

wrote about Greenfield's appearance before the "elite" English society in "Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands"

Post-England career

In the United States, Greenfield reconnected with Wood, though with a strong stance against his

discriminatory Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, class, religion, or sexu ...

practices, though circumstances still required her to frequently sing at segregated venues. Following her return from England, she performed many charity concerts, many supporting Black churches and schools, which were widely popular and raised considerable funds. By 1855, she was hailed as an inspirational figure for both

free Free may refer to: Concept * Freedom, the ability to act or change without constraint or restriction * Emancipate, attaining civil and political rights or equality * Free (''gratis''), free of charge * Gratis versus libre, the difference betw ...

and enslaved Blacks. In the late 1850s, some of her charitable work became controversial, as she raised money for African missions, expeditions, and aid for Liberian settlers, largely

colonialist Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory. While frequently an Imperialism, imperialist project, colonialism c ...

causes.

Greenfield toured the United States again in 1854, 1856, and 1863, sometimes with Thomas Bowers, who became known as "The Colored Mario" and "The American Mario" for the similarity of his voice to Italian opera tenor

Giovanni Mario Giovanni may refer to: * Giovanni (name), an Italian male given name and surname * Giovanni (meteorology), a Web interface for users to analyze NASA's gridded data * ''Don Giovanni'', a 1787 opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, based on the legend of ...

. Her concerts brought her to Maryland, which, as a

slave state In the United States before 1865, a slave state was a state in which slavery and the internal or domestic slave trade were legal, while a free state was one in which they were prohibited. Between 1812 and 1850, it was considered by the slave s ...

, was particularly dangerous. These concerts were incredibly successful, though, with newspapers around the North describing them as progress toward abolition. Throughout her tours, southern newspapers denied her success or twisted it into pro-slavery propaganda, describing her in grotesquely racist language. In her 1863 tour, Greenfield's concert featured many political songs. During the

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...

, she continued performing charity concerts in the North and raised funds to support Black Union soldiers. She also performed for Black soldiers. After 1866, she performed at churches in the South. After 1863, Greenfield occasionally performed, often to benefit African American causes. She was praised as an exceptional Black achiever, with

James McCune Smith James McCune Smith (April 18, 1813 – November 17, 1865) was an American physician, apothecary, abolitionist and author. He was the first African American to earn a medical degree. His M.D. was awarded by the University of Glasgow in Glasgow, S ...

claiming "The colored man must do impracticable things before he is admitted to a place in society. He must speak like a Douglass, write like a Dumas, and sing like the Black Swan before he could be recognized as a human being." She was included in each of Philadelphia's ''Social, Civil and Statistical Association of the Colored People of Pennsylvania's'' lecture series (likely volunteering her time) as an integral part of the program, and accompanying key speeches. Notably, she performed preceding a lecture by

Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, February 14, 1818 – February 20, 1895) was an American social reformer, Abolitionism in the United States, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. He was the most impor ...

Later life and death

Settling in

, Greenfield ran a music studio and promoted Black singers. Among her voice pupils was Thomas Bowers. She was a member of the Philadelphia Shiloh Baptist Church, and directed its choir. In the 1860s she created an

opera Opera is a form of History of theatre#European theatre, Western theatre in which music is a fundamental component and dramatic roles are taken by Singing, singers. Such a "work" (the literal translation of the Italian word "opera") is typically ...

troupe, the Black Swan Opera Troupe, with Bowers, which she directed.Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p203 By 1868, she was listed as a "music critic" among professors supporting

The Christian Recorder ''The Christian Recorder'' is the official newspaper of the African Methodist Episcopal Church and is the oldest continuously published African-American newspaper in the United States. It has been called "arguably the most powerful black periodi ...

. Greenfield died in Philadelphia of

paralysis Paralysis (: paralyses; also known as plegia) is a loss of Motor skill, motor function in one or more Skeletal muscle, muscles. Paralysis can also be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory d ...

on March 31, 1876. In the early 1920s,

Harry Pace Harry Herbert Pace (January 6, 1884 – July 19, 1943) was an American music publisher and insurance executive. He was the founder of Black Swan Records, the first record label owned by an African American with wide distribution capabilities. ...

established

Black Swan Records Black Swan Records was an American jazz and blues record label founded in 1921 in Harlem, New York. It was the first widely distributed label to be owned, operated, and marketed to African Americans. Founded by Harry Pace with W.C. Handy, Blac ...

, named after Greenfield.

Repertoire and vocal range

Best known for her performances of the music of

George Frideric Handel George Frideric (or Frederick) Handel ( ; baptised , ; 23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German-British Baroque composer well-known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi, and organ concerti. Born in Halle, Germany, H ...

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period (music), Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age ...

Gioachino Rossini Gioachino Antonio Rossini (29 February 1792 – 13 November 1868) was an Italian composer of the late Classical period (music), Classical and early Romantic music, Romantic eras. He gained fame for his 39 operas, although he also wrote man ...

Giacomo Meyerbeer Giacomo Meyerbeer (born Jakob Liebmann Meyer Beer; 5 September 1791 – 2 May 1864) was a German opera composer, "the most frequently performed opera composer during the nineteenth century, linking Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Mozart and Richard Wa ...

Vincenzo Bellini Vincenzo Salvatore Carmelo Francesco Bellini (; ; 3 November 1801 – 23 September 1835) was an Italian opera composer famed for his long, graceful melodies and evocative musical settings. A central figure of the era, he was admired not only ...

, and

Gaetano Donizetti Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (29 November 1797 – 8 April 1848) was an Italian Romantic music, Romantic composer, best known for his almost 70 operas. Along with Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini, he was a leading composer of the ''be ...

, she also performed sentimental American songs such as Henry Bishop's 1852 setting of

John Howard Payne John Howard Payne (June 9, 1791 – April 10, 1852) was an American actor, poet, playwright, and writer who had nearly two decades of a theatrical career and success in London. He is today most remembered as the creator of " Home! Sweet Home ...

's "

Home! Sweet Home! "Home! Sweet Home!" is a song adapted from American actor and dramatist John Howard Payne's 1823 opera ''Clari, or the Maid of Milan.'' The song's melody was composed by Englishman Sir Henry Bishop with lyrics by Payne. Bishop had earlier ...

" and

Stephen Foster Stephen Collins Foster (July 4, 1826January 13, 1864), known as "the father of American music", was an American composer known primarily for his parlour music, parlour and Folk music, folk music during the Romantic music, Romantic period. He wr ...

's "

Old Folks at Home "Old Folks at Home" (also known as " Swanee River") is a folk song written by Stephen Foster in 1851. Since 1935, it has been the official state song of Florida, although in 2008 the original lyrics were revised. It is Roud Folk Song Index ...

".Lott, p. 235. Her repertoire also included "I'm Free," a piece written for her by

Charles William Glover Charles William Glover (February 1806 – 23 March 1863) was an English violinist and composer. He was the elder brother of Stephen Glover. Glover played the violin in the orchestras of Drury Lane and Covent Garden theatre The Royal Oper ...

. Greenfield performed in both masculine and feminine

vocal registers A vocal register is a range of tones in the human voice produced by a particular vibratory pattern of the vocal folds. These registers include modal voice (or normal voice), vocal fry, falsetto, and the whistle register. Registers originate in ...

as a

soprano A soprano () is a type of classical singing voice and has the highest vocal range of all voice types. The soprano's vocal range (using scientific pitch notation) is from approximately middle C (C4) = 261 Hertz, Hz to A5 in Choir, choral ...

and a

tenor A tenor is a type of male singing voice whose vocal range lies between the countertenor and baritone voice types. It is the highest male chest voice type. Composers typically write music for this voice in the range from the second B below m ...

. Her vocal compass gave her entry into both Black and white cultural spaces.

References

External links

The Black Swan at Home and Abroad; A Biographical Sketch of Miss Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield, The American Vocalist. @ Gutenberg.org
{{DEFAULTSORT:Greenfield, Elizabeth 1810s births 1876 deaths 19th-century American slaves 19th-century African-American women singers 19th-century American women singers 19th-century American women opera singers African-American women opera singers Musicians from Natchez, Mississippi Singers from Philadelphia Singers from Mississippi Classical musicians from Pennsylvania People enslaved in Mississippi