Eleutherna (), also called Apollonia (), was an ancient

city-state A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world throughout history, including cities such as Rome, ...

Crete Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...

Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...

, which lies 25 km southeast of

Rethymno Rethymno (also Rethymnon; ) is a city in Greece on the island of Crete. It is the capital of Rethymno regional unit, and has a population of more than 35,000 inhabitants (nearly 40,000 for the municipal unit). It is believed to have been built ...

in Rethymno regional unit. Archaeologists excavated the site, located on a narrow northern spur of

Mount Ida In Greek mythology, two sacred mountains are called Mount Ida, the "Mountain of the Goddess": Mount Ida in Crete, and Mount Ida in the ancient Troad region of western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey), which was also known as the '' Phrygian Ida' ...

, the highest mountain in Crete. The site is about 1 km south of modern town of Eleftherna, about 8 km north east of Moni Arkadiou, in the current municipality of

. It flourished from the Dark Ages of Greece’s early history until Byzantine times.

History

Eleutherna is under excavation since 1984 as part of the systematic Eleutherna project led by Department of History and Archaeology from the

University of Crete The University of Crete (UoC; Greek: Πανεπιστήμιο Κρήτης) is a multi-disciplinary, research-oriented institution in Crete, Greece, located in the cities of Rethymno (official seat) and Heraklion. There are 16 main undergraduate ...

led originally by three Classical Archaeology professors:

Petros Themelis Petros G. Themelis (, 1936 – 27 October 2023) was a Greek classical archaeologist and professor of the University of Crete. He led excavations at numerous sites, including extensive excavations and restoration works at ancient Messene. Life ...

, Thanasis Kalpaxis and Nikos Stampolidis. Stampolidis has been in charge of surveys and systematic excavations at the sanctuaries and

necropoleis A necropolis (: necropolises, necropoles, necropoleis, necropoli) is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek ''nekropolis'' (). The term usually implies a separate burial site at a distan ...

in ''Orthi Petra'', even stone quarries in the surroundings of the ''Prines'' hill. The discovery of the remains of four females in Orthi Petra was declared one of top 10 discoveries of 2009 by the

Archaeological Institute of America The Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) is North America, North America's oldest learned society and largest organization devoted to the world of archaeology. AIA professionals have carried out archaeological fieldwork around the world and ...

. Anagnostis Agelarakis was instrumental in helping to identify an Iron Age matriline—a so-called “dynasty of priestesses” — at the site, based on the dental epigenetic traits of the individuals buried there. The

Geometric Period Geometric art is a phase of Greek art, characterized largely by geometric motifs in vase painting, that flourished towards the end of the Greek Dark Ages and a little later, . Its center was in Athens, and from there the style spread among the t ...

of the later Greek Dark Ages,

Dorians The Dorians (; , , singular , ) were one of the four major ethnic groups into which the Greeks, Hellenes (or Greeks) of Classical Greece divided themselves (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans (tribe), Achaeans, and Ionians). They are almost alw ...

colonized the city on a steep, naturally fortified ridge. The city's location made it a natural crossroads, as it lay between

Kydonia Kydonia ( or ), also known as Cydonia (, ''Kydōnía'') was an ancient city located at the site of present-day Chania near the west end of the island of Crete in Greece. The city is known from archaeological remains dating back to the Minoan e ...

on the northwest coast and

Knossos Knossos (; , ; Linear B: ''Ko-no-so'') is a Bronze Age archaeological site in Crete. The site was a major centre of the Minoan civilization and is known for its association with the Greek myth of Theseus and the minotaur. It is located on th ...

, and between the shore, where it controlled its ports, Stavromenos and Panormos, and the great sanctuary cave near the peak of Ida, Idaion Andron. The Dorian city evolved in the Archaic Period in a similar vein as did

Lato Lato () was an ancient city of Crete, the ruins of which are located approximately 3 km from the village of Kritsa. History The Dorian city-state was built in a defensible position overlooking Mirabello Bay between two peaks, both of ...

and Dreros, its contemporaneous Dorian counterparts. In 220 BC the city of Eleutherna triggered the outbreak of the

Lyttian War The Lyttian War was an internal conflict fought from around 220 BC to about 216 BC between two coalitions of Cretan city-states, led by Knossos and Polyrrhenia respectively. The events of the war are recorded by the historian Polybius. It is con ...

by accusing the Rhodians of the assassination of their leader Timarchus. The Eleuthernans eventually declared war on

Rhodes Rhodes (; ) is the largest of the Dodecanese islands of Greece and is their historical capital; it is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, ninth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Administratively, the island forms a separ ...

. During the following conflict Eleutherna was at first allied with

and

Gortys Gortyna (; also known as Gortyn (Γορτύν)) was a town of ancient Crete which appears in the Homeric poems under the form of Γορτύν; but afterwards became usually Gortyna (Γόρτυνα). According to Stephanus of Byzantium it was or ...

, but later they were compelled to change sides by the

Polyrrhenia Polyrrhenia or Polyrrenia (; modern ), Polyrrhen or Polyrren (Πολύρρην) or Polyren (Πολύρην), or Pollyrrhenia or Pollyrrenia (Πολλύρρηνα),'' Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax'', p. 18 or Polyrrenion (Πολυρρήνιον) or Pol ...

ns and joined the opposite coalition led by the

Macedon Macedonia ( ; , ), also called Macedon ( ), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, which later became the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal ...

ian king Philip V. With the Roman conquest of Crete in 68/67 BCE, luxurious villas, baths, and other public buildings demonstrate that Eleutherna was a prosperous centre through the Imperial period, until the catastrophic earthquake of 365 CE. Eleutherna was the seat of a Christian bishop: bishop Euphratas constructed a large basilica in the mid-seventh century. The attacks of caliph

Harun Al-Rashid Abū Jaʿfar Hārūn ibn Muḥammad ar-Rāshīd (), or simply Hārūn ibn al-Mahdī (; or 766 – 24 March 809), famously known as Hārūn al-Rāshīd (), was the fifth Abbasid caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate, reigning from September 786 unti ...

in the later eighth century, together with another earthquake in 796, and the subsequent Arab rule in Crete, led to the final abandonment of the site. Following the occupation of the island by the

Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...

, a Catholic diocese was established, still a Roman Catholic titular bishopric today. Public exhibitions in 1993 and 1994, and especially the comprehensive exhibition of 2004 at the Museum of Cycladic Art, Athens, have introduced the archaeological site to the general public. On the last occasion the Louvre lent the seventh-century BCE " Lady of Auxerre", now given a definitive Cretan context with comparable finds at Eleutherna.

Archaeology

Excavations began at the site in 1985.

Pyrgi

The city is situated in a strategic geographical position: it is safeguarded by mountains to the south but retains access to the sea in the north and it controls important roads located north and east of the city. The acropolis can be accessed via a narrow route overlooked by a tower, the Greek word for which (","") lends its name to the nearby hill: Pyrgi. This hill is itself flanked by two torrent-beds, of which the western side is called Haplota and the eastern is called Farangitis. Excavations of the natural

terrace Terrace may refer to: Landforms and construction * Fluvial terrace, a natural, flat surface that borders and lies above the floodplain of a stream or river * Terrace, a street suffix * Terrace, the portion of a lot between the public sidewalk a ...

on the hill, the central

plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; : plateaus or plateaux), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. ...

, revealed hundreds of small

obsidian Obsidian ( ) is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extrusive rock, extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock. Produced from felsic lava, obsidian is rich in the lighter element ...

pieces—comprising materials such as flakes, cores, and blades—dating to the

Early Minoan The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age culture which was centered on the island of Crete. Known for its monumental architecture and Minoan art, energetic art, it is often regarded as the first civilization in Europe. The ruins of the Minoan pa ...

period alongside pottery from the Early Minoan to the Late Minoan IIIc period. The Early Minoan pottery samples included wares imported from Vasiliki, Pyrgos, and Agios Onoufrios. It is likely that, during the 7th-century BCE, the early inhabitants of the site organized themselves around the plateau, which served as the center of the community's religious and political life. Such origins are attested for in numerous inscriptions uncovered at the site, many of which were found within the ruins of an early Byzantine Church dated to the 3rd-4th centuries founded upon an older

tetraconch A tetraconch, from the Greek for "four shells", is a building, usually a church architecture, church or other religious building, with four apses, one in each direction, usually of equal size. The basic ground plan of the building is therefore a ...

. Moreover, the presence of a temple located just south of the church that was constructed in the 7th century BCE and continuously operated until the 2nd century CE further indicates that the central plateau bore great religious and civic significance for the community. Archaeological work in the area revealed sections of a wall on the western slope of the hill that were built upon foundations that themselves were set within a trench dug into

rock Rock most often refers to: * Rock (geology), a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals or mineraloids * Rock music, a genre of popular music Rock or Rocks may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * Rock, Caerphilly, a location in Wale ...

. This structure contained no conclusively datable elements, resembled the

masonry Masonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound, and pasted together by mortar (masonry), mortar. The term ''masonry'' can also refer to the buildin ...

of fortifications at Aptera and Falasarna, which have been dated to the

Hellenistic period In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

. Large quantities of Hellenistic pottery were discovered at the tetraconch, indicating high levels of human activity during the period between the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE. Amidst these Hellenistic wares, a set of high-quality drinking and serving vessels was excavated southwest of the tetraconch, suggesting that these materials may have been intentionally abandoned.

Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history of ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

mentions that the city was conquered by the Romans through deception; he notes that residents of the city had sabotaged a

brick A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a unit primarily composed of clay. But is now also used informally to denote building un ...

tower that had proved difficult to capture by discreetly coating it with

vinegar Vinegar () is an aqueous solution of diluted acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting ...

at night, causing the tower to become brittle. Dio notes that the Roman general Metellus, following his conquest of the city, had extorted large sums of money from the inhabitants.

.
Roman History
'
36.18.2
Archaeological excavation revealed the presence of large deposits of earth, which could extend several meters deep, that covered layers of destroyed Hellenistic structures, indicating that there may have been widespread leveling of Hellenistic buildings prior to extensive reconstruction programs initiated under Roman rule. The presence of Roman pottery imports alongside an inscription dated to 4-6 CE dedicated to

Agrippa Postumus Marcus Agrippa Postumus (12 BC – AD 14),: "The elder Agrippa died, in the summer of 12 BC, while Julia was pregnant with their fifth child. The boy was very likely born sometime after June 26 of the following year. When his grandfather adopted ...

indicate that human activity continued in the area during the 1st-century CE. Roman construction efforts including the establishment of a

bathhouse Bathhouse may refer to: * Public baths, public facilities for bathing * Gay bathhouse A gay bathhouse, also known as a gay sauna or a gay steambath, is a public bath targeted towards Gay men, gay and Bisexuality, bisexual men. In gay slang, a ...

and an aqueduct; such expensive projects suggest the central plateau retained enough significance for the local community to warrant such investment. Further excavation revealed fragments of

clay Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolinite, ). Most pure clay minerals are white or light-coloured, but natural clays show a variety of colours from impuriti ...

spacers,

marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO3) or Dolomite (mineral), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is ty ...

veneer Veneer may refer to: Materials * Masonry veneer, a thin facing layer of brick * Stone veneer, a thin facing layer of stone * Veneer (dentistry), a cosmetic treatment for teeth * Wood veneer, a thin facing layer of wood Arts and entertainment * ' ...

hydraulic Hydraulics () is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics, which concer ...

mortar, clay floor tiles, and four

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...

coins A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by ...

dated to 296-310 CE all embedded within a layer of black

soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, water, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms. Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from ''soil'' by re ...

found in the area. Such finds suggest that the bathhouse and the tetraconch were possibly abandonned prior to the earthquake of 365, which is documented to have impacted other areas of the Pyrgi hill. Archaeological evidence of human habitation in the central plateau remains scant from the 4th-7th centuries, until—in the 7th-century—a large

church Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a place/building for Christian religious activities and praying * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian comm ...

was constructed near the old acropolis and was built upon the prior tetraconch. Furthermore, a

cemetery A cemetery, burial ground, gravesite, graveyard, or a green space called a memorial park or memorial garden, is a place where the remains of many death, dead people are burial, buried or otherwise entombed. The word ''cemetery'' (from Greek ...

was established on the ruins of the former temple and the fortifications of the acropolis were renovated, presumably to help protect against the Arab incursions. Other evidence suggests that the lower terraces of Pyrgi hill continued to thrive during the 5th and 6th centuries, with four new churches constructed in the area during this time. All evidence of residential buildings disappears after the 8th-century, and the latest numismatic evidence of human habitation at the central plateau is a

follis The follis (plural ''folles''; , ) was a type of coin in the Roman and Byzantine traditions. Roman coin The term ''follis'' is used for a large bronze Roman coin denomination introduced by Diocletian in about 294. The term "nummus" is now th ...

of Leo III and

Constantine V Constantine V (; July 718 – 14 September 775) was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775. His reign saw a consolidation of Byzantine security from external threats. As an able military leader, Constantine took advantage of Third Fitna, civil war ...

(735-741).

Temple

The temple was constructed on the natural bedrock of the plateau utilizing the natural

limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...

found near the site. Its original state is somewhat obscured due to the impact of later constructions, on the remains of the initial site, leaving some parts of the temple preserved only in a fragmentary condition. The south wall of the temple was 9.87 meters long and 0.65 meters wide; it was coated by alternating patterns of

ashlar Ashlar () is a cut and dressed rock (geology), stone, worked using a chisel to achieve a specific form, typically rectangular in shape. The term can also refer to a structure built from such stones. Ashlar is the finest stone masonry unit, a ...

blocks and fieldstones alongside its length, while its width is covered exclusively by ashlar used as

stretchers A stretcher, gurney, litter, or pram is an apparatus used for moving patients who require medical care. A basic type (cot or litter) must be carried by two or more people. A wheeled stretcher (known as a gurney, trolley, bed or cart) is often ...

. Rough or semi-worked stones were placed as fillers between the vertical joints and the ashlar blocks throughout the wall. It is likely that the wall extended further beyond the surviving remnants: the outcrop of natural rock on the western end of the wall was likely completely covered by now-lost westward extensions of the structure. On easternmost end of the southern wall, heavily

eroded Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is disti ...

blocks connect with the southernmost end of the eastern wall, forming a distinct southeastern section of the walling of the temple. The ashlar blocks of the southern were cut and reshaped to fit to the east wall, indicating that the eastern wall was a later addition constructed after the south wall. The preserved segments of the eastern wall stretch across a length of 5.9 meters and a height of 0.77 meters, although only two courses of four ashlar blocks survive. Another, separate segment of blocks reaching a height of 0.12 meters extends from the lowest course; it was possibly an euthynteria, a type of structure placed near the foundation of buildings in

Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek architecture came from the Greeks, or Hellenes, whose Ancient Greece, culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Asia Minor, Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC ...

. One incision obliquely carved into the width of the westernmost block of the uppermost course of the southern wall matches to the western end of a paved area north of the wall, indicating that a segment of wall once connected the two. Evidence of this largely lost section of the walls may appear in the form of various ashlar blocks arranged in a north-south direction and oriented at a

right angle In geometry and trigonometry, a right angle is an angle of exactly 90 Degree (angle), degrees or radians corresponding to a quarter turn (geometry), turn. If a Line (mathematics)#Ray, ray is placed so that its endpoint is on a line and the ad ...

towards the southern wall. Further ruins on the western side of the temple attest to the presence of another, distinct western wall; although, unusual aspects of its masonry—such as the usage of sherds as fillers—indicate that this structure was constructed after the other portions of the wall. Remains a 4.38-meter-long and 0.98-meter-high portion of the north wall were also recovered, although they were partially covered by ruins of the later church. Certain features of this wall are congruent with the design elements of the aforementioned sections; particularly, the width of this section of the north wall is covered by a stone block and it is located near semi-finished stones akin to those found alongside the south wall. These similarities suggest that it was likely constructed at the same time, although other features of the wall suggest a different style of construction from the south wall. Such discrepancies may have emerged due to the influence of subsequent construction on the site. The easternmost block of the northern wall bears an incision that may have matched with the base of another wall that itself ran perpendicular to the north wall along a north-south wall.

Pits

Excavations on the western side of the acropolis revealed three pits containing ritual materials, of which two were dated to the Late Minoan IIIc period and one was dated the Proto-Geometric period. Pit A, dated to the LMIIIc period, was cut 0.8-0.9 meters deep into

bedrock In geology, bedrock is solid rock that lies under loose material ( regolith) within the crust of Earth or another terrestrial planet. Definition Bedrock is the solid rock that underlies looser surface material. An exposed portion of bed ...

and has a

diameter In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the centre of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest Chord (geometry), chord of the circle. Both definitions a ...

of approximately 1.02 meters. It contained small pieces of

, drinking vessels, cooking utensils, and animal bones—primarily

sheep Sheep (: sheep) or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to d ...

and

goats The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a species of goat-antelope that is mostly kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the famil ...

. Alongside these discoveries, numerous ceramic objects were found: a

brazier A brazier () is a container used to burn charcoal or other solid fuel for cooking, heating or rituals. It often takes the form of a metal box or bowl with feet, but in some places it is made of terracotta. Its elevation helps circulate air, feed ...

with signs of burning, three skyphoi, and a tripod cooking-pot with a flat bottom and straight walls that may have been involved in communal meals. Two figurines were uncovered in a layer of grey-brown soil: one was a depiction of a seated female being, likely a

kourotrophos Kourotrophos ( 'child nurturer') is the name that was given in ancient Greece to gods and goddesses whose properties included their ability to protect young people. Numerous gods are referred to by the epithet such as Athena, Apollo, Hermes, He ...

, and another was a handmade sculpture of a

bull A bull is an intact (i.e., not Castration, castrated) adult male of the species ''Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e. cows proper), bulls have long been an important symbol cattle in r ...

with its nostrils, eyes, and mouth marked by red paint and red stripes covering its head and body, possibly representing a harness. Pit B, measuring 1.63 by 1.34 meters, was carved into natural rock and contained pottery from the Subminoan to the Proto-Geometric periods, much of which comprised cooking tools and drinking vessels. Further pottery dating from the Proto-Geometric to the

Geometric period Geometric art is a phase of Greek art, characterized largely by geometric motifs in vase painting, that flourished towards the end of the Greek Dark Ages and a little later, . Its center was in Athens, and from there the style spread among the t ...

was unearthed in the upper-layers of the deposit; the materials were highly fragmented, likely to due to damage inflicted by later construction activities. Despite the aforementioned archaeological finds, it is unlikely the site was continuously populated throughout each period, as there are scant remains of any settlement during any period. Pit C was dated to the Proto-Geometric period and was a 0.5 by 0.43-meter hole carved into the natural soil of the area. It was divided into two sections separated by dressed stones, although materials were likely deposited into the holes at the same time, as disparate pieces of one

oenochoe An oenochoe, also spelled ''oinochoe'' (; from , ''oînos'', "wine", and , ''khéō'', , sense "wine pourer"; : ''oinochoai''; Neo-Latin: ''oenochoë'', : ''oenochoae''; English : oenochoes or oinochoes), is a wine jug and a key form of ancient ...

were found in both sections. The pit contained stone tools, animal bones, and pieces of ceramic items, primarily kitchen tools and drinking vessels. Collectively, the pits represent a continuity between numerous ancient sites throughout Crete, which contain pits carved into natural rock and used for the storage of utensils for drinking and eating. It is possible that such deposits were connected to the practice of ritualized communal eating, possibly for the for the social function of strengthening intrapersonal bonds. The presence of a kourotrophos figurine alongside wild-goat horns, indicating the involvement of meat acquired through hunting, indicates that the practice involved with the pits may have constituted a coming-of-age ritual representing integration into the broader community. It is likely that the ritual practices occurred in an open-air environment as no evidence of any contemporary architectural activity has been unearthed on the central plateau except for the archaic temple.

References

Bibliography

* Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis, ''Eleutherna on Crete: The Wider Horizon''. In Aruz, J. and Seymour, M. (eds). ''Assyria to Iberia: Art and Culture in the Iron Age'', Metropolitan Museum of Art symposia, pp. 283–295, Yale University Press, 2016. * Anagnostis Agelarakis, ''The anthropology of Tomb A1K1 of Orthi Petra in Eleutherna. A Narrative of the Bones: Aspects of the Human Condition in Geometric-Archaic Eleutherna'' (Athens, 2005). * * S. Andreas Koudellou, ''Eleutherna 2006-2009'', The University of Crete, January 10, 2009. *

External links

Museum of Ancient Eleutherna

Ancient Eleutherna from the Greek Ministry of Culture

{{Authority control Populated places in Rethymno (regional unit) Rethymno (municipality) Cretan city-states Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Crete Roman sites in Greece Populated places in ancient Crete Former populated places in Greece Iron Age sites in Greece